tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-25706488066705047622024-03-12T18:19:56.686-07:00The Contemporary HistoryThe History of Contemporary WorldBunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comBlogger335125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-10714106370541714242013-08-17T05:58:00.002-07:002017-07-11T07:52:10.814-07:00American Indian Movement (AIM)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://watersome.blogspot.com/2012/09/glaciers.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="American Indian Movement (AIM)" border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-WGCCIF_w_kU/Ug9yXjFFcWI/AAAAAAAAHvw/g95tMDNDJdk/s1600/American-Movement.jpg" title="American Indian Movement (AIM)" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">American Indian Movement (AIM)</td></tr>
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Relations between Native peoples and U.S. federal and state governments soon after <a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/06/world-war-ii.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">World War II </a>swung between paternalism and indifference. Native Americans responded with a new militancy that echoed the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0143124749/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0143124749&linkId=cefe4859a484bea20c01d3fb46150fb2" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Civil Rights movement</a> and, by 1968, produced the American Indian Movement (AIM). <br />
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“Red power,” expressed in lawsuits, sit-ins, and demonstrations—some of them violent—created greater awareness of Native rights and fostered new economic and educational initiatives. But many Indians remained desperately poor and isolated.<br />
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In the 1950s federal policies reverted to a pre–New Deal relationship with Native tribes. Indians were once again urged to assimilate, giving up tribal political rights and long-standing land claims. Natives were encouraged to relocate from reservations to urban areas. More than 100 tribes were stripped of their sovereignty and benefits. The federal <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B002Y5XQAU/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B002Y5XQAU&linkId=7700a9b9e74dfe5bcceaa3ee83998e84" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)</a>, never beloved but still useful to Native groups, lost much of its mission.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140144560/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=0b7b6f2af6857465edc65ed63c69db61" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0140144560&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0140144560" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1118751582/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=healthsome-20&linkId=3994de4c0171d6071c59133dcfdd5b4b" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1118751582&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=healthsome-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=healthsome-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1118751582" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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This again changed dramatically in 1962 when President <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/john-f-kennedy.html" target="_blank">John F. Kennedy</a> ushered in what became known as the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0816677832/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0816677832&linkId=ee89b05e8c6caf9f5474f49a511c30bf" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Self-Determination Era</a>. Kennedy was first in a series of presidents of both parties to take Indian cultural and economic claims more seriously. Natives benefited from Great Society programs. President Richard Nixon played a major role as a proponent of the 1974 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act.<br />
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By then the American Indian Movement was well under way. In 1969 AIM members occupied <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000IYXVM2/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B000IYXVM2&linkId=eb5337121bf00cde6683dc0f1833f6b3" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Alcatraz</a>, the San Francisco Bay island formerly used as a federal prison. They would remain there, reclaiming Alcatraz as Indian land, for almost two years. In 1971 protesters briefly occupied Mount Rushmore, the South Dakota presidential monument near the 1876 site of a Sioux rout of General George Custer.<br />
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Not all AIM protests were peaceful. In 1973 a violent clash at <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0805086846" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="9fd5c09536b9b612681fa373236b0663" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Wounded Knee" href="http://www.amazon.com/Bury-My-Heart-Wounded-Knee/dp/0805086846/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=9fd5c09536b9b612681fa373236b0663&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_1964970" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Wounded Knee</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_1964970" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=9fd5c09536b9b612681fa373236b0663&_cb=1479767442552" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />, South Dakota, killed two activists and badly wounded a federal agent. It ended after 73 days when the Nixon administration promised to review an 1868 treaty. AIM activist Leonard Peltier, who grew up on North Dakota’s Anishinabe Turtle Mountain Reservation, received two life sentences for murdering two federal agents during a 1975 shoot-out on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. Human rights groups maintain his innocence.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/07/boxer-rebellion.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><img alt="American Indian Movement (AIM)" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8v49oxZDthU/Ug9zGR5VCgI/AAAAAAAAHv4/YTDdlxwlYN8/s1600/indian-movement.jpg" title="American Indian Movement (AIM)" /></a></div>
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The overall trajectory of U.S.-Native relations was toward greater autonomy and respect. Some “terminated” tribes, like the Menominee of the northern Great Lakes, had their authority restored. A 1971 Alaskan Native Claims Settlement Act and a 2000 restoration of 84,000 acres to Utah’s Ute tribe (accompanied by an official apology) advanced self-determination. <br />
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During the presidency of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/george-h-w-bush.html" target="_blank">George H. W. Bush</a>, almost 90 percent of BIA staff had tribal roots. U.S. courts, dusting off long-ignored treaties, restored many Native rights related to fishing, farming, travel, and sovereignty.<br />
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In 1979 Florida’s Seminole were the first to use court-affirmed rights to run bingo games. By the mid1990s more than 100 casinos were operating on reservation lands across the United States. Gaming and other new businesses, including tax-free sales of <a href="http://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/tobacco-industry.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">tobacco</a> and other highly taxed products, enriched many tribes. Some assimilated Natives reaffiliated with their tribes to participate in this new economy. <br />
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But reliance on the greed of non-Indians proved no solution for fundamental inequities. Approximately 28,000 residents of Pine Ridge, the 3,500-square-mile Oglala Sioux reservation, live with high unemployment and annual family incomes below $4,000. High suicide and infant mortality rates have made life expectancy at Pine Ridge the nation’s shortest.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-88775899860575079682013-08-17T05:44:00.000-07:002017-02-11T01:03:57.269-08:00Arab-Israeli War (1956)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/06/eamon-de-valera.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Arab-Israeli War (1956)" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-IkuoUyDmRO4/Ug9RipnG-8I/AAAAAAAAHuo/s5UGLxGUFEY/s1600/Arab-Israeli-1956.jpg" title="Arab-Israeli War (1956)" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arab-Israeli War (1956)</td></tr>
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The nationalization of the Suez Canal was the ostensible cause for the 1956 Arab-Israeli War. After the United States refused aid for building the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/aswan-dam.html" target="_blank">Aswan Dam</a> on July 26, the anniversary of the 1952 revolution, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/gamal-abdel-nasser-egyptian-president.html" target="_blank">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> nationalized the Suez Canal to finance building of the dam, Nasser’s dream project. <br />
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Egypt managed to keep the canal running, much to the consternation of France and Britain. In announcing the canal’s nationalization, Nasser had carefully adhered to international law. The United States, especially the secretary of state, <a href="http://amzn.to/2lumYm2" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">John Foster Dulles</a>, an expert in international law, opposed the use of force to retake the canal and instead proposed a diplomatic settlement.<br />
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The oil shipped through the canal was vital to the British and French economies, and it was apparent that the United States, then self-sufficient in oil, did not intend to supplement any possible oil losses to its European allies. Great Britain and France were determined to take back the canal by force. <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1400079632/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1400079632&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=7V77IWDCWZ7CNB5V" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1400079632&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1400079632" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00Z903YHC/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00Z903YHC&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=WJYU3RZCKKJKISU6" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B00Z903YHC&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=B00Z903YHC" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The British prime minister, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0712665056/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0712665056&linkId=7ea527435503508e1f2545447f64aad1" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Anthony Eden</a>, personally detested Nasser, and his conservative Tory government was reluctant to cede British imperial control. The French were angry over Nasser’s support for the Algerians in the ongoing war there. Israelis feared Nasser’s growing popularity in the Arab world and wanted him removed from power before he could unify the Arabs and possibly form a united front to attack them. <br />
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The Israelis secretly approached the French with a proposal for a joint military action against Egypt; the French then brought Great Britain into the plan. Although some British cabinet members opposed joining the alliance, Eden was determined to bring Nasser’s regime down, and the tripartite agreement of the French, British, and Israelis was concluded.<br />
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According to the plan Israel was to launch a tripronged attack across the Sinai Peninsula, quickly take the territory, and stop the offensive prior to reaching the canal. The British and French would bombard Egyptian airfields and parachute forces along the canal on the supposed excuse that they were there to stop the war between Egypt and Israel.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.kr/2012/03/kama-sutra.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Operation Musketeer 1956" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-fN14E3fB-IU/WJ7RluYhqqI/AAAAAAAAdRI/xHqP8m9ghGwWaE6FLDQDaSBqw03UebpNACLcB/s1600/musketeer.jpg" title="Operation Musketeer 1956" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Operation Musketeer 1956</td></tr>
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The Israelis launched the attack in October 1956, quickly cut through Egyptian defense lines, took the Sinai, but then stopped before reaching the banks of the canal. The British and French were late in launching their attack but ultimately took control of the canal. <br />
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The war was a clear-cut military victory for Israel, Britain, and France, but Nasser immediately accused the three nations of collusion. Although Eden and the French for years publicly denied any collusion, ultimately firsthand accounts by Israeli and other military and political leaders revealed the secret agreement.<br />
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With some justification, Nasser argued that the attack proved that Britain and France still had imperialist designs on the Arab world and that Israel was also a threat to its Arab neighbors. Nasser thus turned a military defeat into a political victory and became the most popular man in the Arab world. Contrary to Western and Israeli hopes, Nasser was not overthrown, and he consolidated power after the 1956 war.<br />
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The war placed the United States in the awkward position of having to condemn its closest allies in the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-nations.html" target="_blank">United Nations</a>. The Soviets gained popularity in the Arab world by supporting Egypt. The war also diverted world attention away from the brutal suppression of the 1956 Hungarian revolt by Soviet forces. <br />
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In the face of international condemnation, Britain and France were forced to withdraw in December 1956, and the canal reverted to Egyptian control. Subsequently Eden, suffering from ill health in part brought on by the stress of the conflict, stepped down as prime minister. The Israelis were reluctant to withdraw from the strategic area of Sharm al-Sheikh in the south of Sinai and the <a href="http://amzn.to/2kD3LwW" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Gaza Strip</a>. <br />
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<a href="http://amzn.to/2kdGovf" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">President Eisenhower</a> intervened and threatened to cut off all United States economic aid if they did not return all the territories to Egypt. Israeli forces finally left in March 1957. However, Israel did gain a unilateral agreement from the United States that the Gulf of Aqaba up to the southern Israeli port of Elath was to be considered an international waterway. <br />
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Egypt and the Arab states never recognized the legality of Aqaba as an international waterway but for a decade did not challenge Israeli shipping through the gulf. Israel made it clear that any future closure of the waterway would be casus belli, or cause for war, and its threatened closure was one cause of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-61890472816104746482013-08-17T05:43:00.003-07:002017-03-06T02:48:00.984-08:00Republic of Angola<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://mafiasome.blogspot.com/2015/05/salvatore-testa-mafia-mobster.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Republic of Angola" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-AkCKx85L_cs/WKy-a6Z0D7I/AAAAAAAAdfA/-JZ2X0SCyBIv7mws8nnFRiNE9I5_ehsUQCLcB/s1600/angola.png" title="Republic of Angola" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Republic of Angola</td></tr>
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The Republic of Angola is situated in south-central Africa. The country is bounded by the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/democratic-republic-of-congo-zaire.html" target="_blank">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> to the northeast, Zambia to the east, Namibia to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. It has an area of 1,246,700 square kilometers and its capital city is Luanda. It is divided into 18 provinces, but one of them, Cabinda, is an enclave, separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br />
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The topography varies from arid coastal areas and dry <a href="http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/01/savannas-and-deciduous-tropical-forests.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">savannas</a> in the interior south to rain forests in the north and a wet interior highland. On the plateau, heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding. Overuse and degradation of water resources have led to inadequate supplies of potable water. Other current environmental issues are deforestation of the tropical rain forest, overuse of pastures, soil erosion, and <a href="http://watersome.blogspot.com/2012/09/desertification.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">desertification</a>, which results in a loss of biodiversity.<br />
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Angola had approximately 12,127,071 inhabitants in 2006. There were around 90 ethnic groups in the country, and although <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/07/portuguese-in-africa.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Portuguese</a> was the official language, Bantu and other African languages were spoken by a high percentage of the population. Although Roman Catholicism remained the dominant religion, there were evangelist and indigenous religions that were very strong.<br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1869193512/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1869193512&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=T72YGZXRT5TSN2HM" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1869193512&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1869193512" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1470013339/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1470013339&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=YLGB4IRQVOLYCEWC" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1470013339&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1470013339" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Angola’s socioeconomic conditions rank in the bottom 10 in the world. Health conditions are inadequate because of years of insurgency. There is a high prevalence of HIV, vectorborne diseases like malaria, and other waterborne diseases. Although the agricultural sector was formerly the mainstay of the economy, it contributed only a small percentage of GDP, because of the disruption caused by civil war. <br />
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The products derived from this sector are bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, and plantains. It also has <a href="http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/04/forest-and-range-policy.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">forest</a> products and fish. Food must be imported in large quantities. <br />
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Angola is one of Africa’s major oil producers. The oil industry is the most important sector of the economy and it constitutes the majority of the country’s exports. Angola has minerals: diamonds, iron, uranium, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, and gold.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://mafiasome.blogspot.com/2015/05/women-as-mafia-victims.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Angola civil war" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bKYYDAq50BM/WL09rQgTT6I/AAAAAAAAeJ0/YhYj3j9yJnEd9I1bJpxLHXUTyrIiVTBAACLcB/s1600/angola.jpg" title="Angola civil war" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Angola civil war</td></tr>
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But Angola is classified as one of the world’s poorest countries despite abundant natural resources. The reasons lie in the history of this country, which has suffered a 27-year civil war that was caused not only by ethnic factors but also by disputes over natural resources.<br />
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Angola was a <a href="http://historyworldsome.blogspot.com/2013/12/portuguese-colonies-in-africa.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Portuguese colony</a>. In the 1960s liberation movements such as Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) began to call for independence. In 1961 the native Angolans rose in a revolt that was repressed. <br />
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In 1964 a group inside of the FNLA separated and created the National Union for Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). During the mid1960s and 1970s there were a series of guerrilla actions, which finished with the negotiation for independence in 1975.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/07/arab-nationalism.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Angola Map" border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NjvBWCd6TwM/Ug9viO-RRaI/AAAAAAAAHvk/vyUzzZ5w-T8/s1600/Angola-map.jpg" title="Angola Map" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Angola Map</td></tr>
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But the postindependence period was distinguished by instability. The MPLA declared itself the government of the country so soon after independence that a civil war broke out between MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention during the cold war. Angola, like many African countries, became involved in the struggle between the superpowers and many African political leaders resorted to U.S. or Soviet aid. The MPLA government received large amounts of aid from <a href="http://historyworldsome.blogspot.com/2013/12/ten-years-war-in-cuba.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Cuba</a> and the <a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/10/soviet-union-new-economic-policy.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a>, while the United States supported first the FNLA and then UNITA.<br />
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In 1976 the FNLA was defeated by Cuban troops, leaving the competition for government control and access to natural resources to MPLA and UNITA. By the end of the cold war era, in 1991, a cease-fire was signed between the government and UNITA and both agreed to make Angola a multiparty state and called for elections. <br />
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In 1992 the MPLA was elected to lead the nation but UNITA disagreed and charged MPLA with fraud. This situation caused tensions and the war continued until 1994, when negotiations began, helped by South Africa and the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-nations.html" target="_blank">United Nations (UN)</a>. The war finished in 2002 when Jonas Savimbi, the president of UNITA, was killed in battle. <br />
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As a result of the civil war, up to 1.5 million lives were lost and 4 million people were displaced. Since the war Angola has been slowly rebuilding, increasing foreign exchange and implementing reforms recommended by the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/international-monetary-fund-imf.html" target="_blank">International Monetary Fund</a>. Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-82698429144361684852013-08-17T04:48:00.001-07:002017-08-17T05:15:52.368-07:00ANZUS Treaty<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/07/fulgencio-batista.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="ANZUS Treaty" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cUmOygxLey8/Ug9iLJqZ8tI/AAAAAAAAHvI/89nLIZ7Q9Vk/s1600/ANZUS-Treaty.jpg" title="ANZUS Treaty" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">ANZUS Treaty</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The ANZUS Security Treaty binds together Australia, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1786570246/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1786570246&linkId=ae0e139e0e1ae113cc2a4540b4abc57a" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">New Zealand</a>, and the United States. ANZUS was signed in San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and took effect on April 28, 1952. It remains in force, although it has increasingly come under attack by both Australia and New Zealand since the 1980s and New Zealand has essentially withdrawn from the alliance.<br />
<br />
Beginning in the late 1940s the United States abandoned the isolationist impulse that had directed its foreign policy in previous decades to form and maintain a global network of alliances. United States policy makers in the cold war were especially interested in opposing the rise of communism. Following the outbreak of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/korean-war.html" target="_blank">Korean War</a> in 1950, the United States became concerned with constructing a series of regional security arrangements to guard against <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B005QSRQS0/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B005QSRQS0&linkId=bde6fa7de66fd6673f9d231535e5f033" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">communist attacks</a>. <br />
<br />
For Australia and New Zealand, alliances were a necessity because of their need for protection, particularly from Communist China, the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a>, and due to the problems associated with decolonization in Asia and the Pacific. Both countries were also concerned about the return of Japan to sovereign status, and sought a replacement for <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1465439617/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1465439617&linkId=f5d83530c82bb9bb39d383641fd2caca" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Great Britain</a> as a dependable security guarantor. The United States offered exactly what both sought.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1612518532/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1612518532&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=7W5ZHBSJFJP4SSR2" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1612518532&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1612518532" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0275946932/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=3824f97d2f5c79efaa169170f9e34d9b" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0275946932&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0275946932" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The ANZUS Treaty stipulates that an armed attack on New Zealand, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B001RU2YUQ/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B001RU2YUQ&linkId=af8c6c2854240151ea33042077cb892e" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Australia</a>, or the United States would be dangerous to each signatory’s own peace and safety. Accordingly, each country would act to meet the common danger in step with its constitutional processes. In the early and mid-1950s the United States rejected Australian efforts to move toward more security cooperation such as cooperative and systematic military planning and the designation of national security units that might fall under the ANZUS name and assignment, similar to the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/north-atlantic-treaty-organization-nato.html" target="_blank">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a> model.<br />
<br />
After the ANZUS pact was signed, nonsecurity ties between the three countries grew, paralleling the building of their security relations. Commercial, cultural, and other forms of U.S. influence were largely welcomed during the cold war years. The great disparity of size and power generated irritation within Australia and New Zealand, however, and both countries complained about the way they were treated by the United States, although both developed close military cooperation with the United States. Australia, in particular, became a valuable site for U.S. communication and surveillance facilities and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1451645074/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1451645074&linkId=5245cc5c3cf1c7c2f045d830fe457a97" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">naval ship</a> visits.<br />
<br />
As the cold war began to wind down in the 1980s, the threat from outside sources lessened. Citizens of the two nations, particularly among members of the labor, began to question the elaborate security ties with the United States. Citizens of New Zealand and Australia challenged ANZUS as more a method for the United States to enlist support for its military agenda than a means of providing security for them. <br />
<br />
In 1984 New Zealand banned the entry of U.S. Navy ships into its ports in the belief that the ships were carrying nuclear weapons or were nuclear powered. The United States argued that New Zealand’s action compromised U.S. military operations. Additionally, Americans were offended by the manner in which New Zealand presented its differences with U.S. policy makers. <br />
<br />
When President <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/ronald-reagan.html" target="_blank">Ronald Reagan</a> announced in 1986 that the United States would decline to abide by the provisions of the unratified Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) II that restricted nuclear weapons, New Zealand stated that the United States had not been negotiating in good faith. The United States responded by rescinding its ANZUS-based security obligations toward New Zealand in 1986.<br />
<br />
The future of ANZUS is in doubt. New Zealand has shown no indication that it wants to resume the partnership. For Australia, the alliance with the United States has continued to be a foundation of its defense policy.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-61243260997128061392013-08-17T04:21:00.002-07:002016-11-29T19:27:40.291-08:00Arab-Israeli-Palestinian Peace Negotiations<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://adf.ly/BhBj8" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Arab-Israeli-Palestinian Peace Negotiations" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-13tOKWVRCXg/Ug9bMgjUoOI/AAAAAAAAHu4/flkpA8EwoF0/s1600/Arab-Israeli-Peace.jpg" title="Arab-Israeli-Palestinian Peace Negotiations" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arab-Israeli-Palestinian Peace Negotiations</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Five major wars and numerous peace negotiations have failed to resolve the ongoing conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians over land and statehood. Israel declared its independence and won the first war against opposing Arab states and the Palestinians in 1948. <br />
<br />
The 1949 armistice mediated by Ralph Bunche, a United States diplomat to the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-nations.html" target="_blank">United Nations</a>, ended the hostilities but did not result in an actual peace treaty, and technically a state of war still existed. Although the Arab states refused to recognize Israel, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/gamal-abdel-nasser-egyptian-president.html" target="_blank">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> of Egypt supported behind-the-scenes secret negotiations in the early 1950s, but when Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion demanded face-to-face negotiations, the diplomatic efforts failed. <br />
<br />
After the 1956 war, the United Nations, with Egypt’s agreement, placed peacekeeping forces in the Sinai Peninsula (Egyptian territory) at strategic locations along the borders between Israel and Egypt. Their removal at Egypt’s request was the ostensible cause of the 1967 war in which Israel decisively defeated the surrounding Arab nations and occupied East Jerusalem, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights (Syrian territory), and the Sinai Peninsula (Egyptian territory). <br />
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<td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1596913436/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1596913436&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=BFZHG4VOJ4PZHWR6" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1596913436&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1596913436" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1501153919/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=fd6923dd8eb9f3ebcafbbc6e45fee660" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1501153919&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1501153919" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td>
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Following this major victory, Israel expected the Arabs to sue for peace and that some border modifications would be made. However, the Arabs refused to negotiate until Israel had withdrawn from all the territory occupied in the 1967 war and that some resolution of the Palestinian refugee issue and demands for self-determination had been achieved. <br />
<br />
Following the 1967 war, the Palestinians concluded that only armed struggle against Israel would achieve their national aspirations, and the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/palestine-liberation-organization-plo.html" target="_blank">Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)</a> emerged as their sole political and military representative. Israel and its United States ally both considered the PLO a terrorist organization and refused to negotiate with it. Various diplomatic settlements were suggested but all failed to break the impasse. <br />
<b><br />
</b> <b>Shuttle Diplomacy</b><br />
<br />
To regain the Sinai and to bring the United States in as a mediator to the dispute, Anwar Sadat of Egypt launched a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying Sinai in 1973. Although Israel suffered some initial defeats, its military soon recovered and regained the offensive. <br />
<br />
With United States and UN diplomacy, a cease-fire was declared, and both sides announced they had won the war. The United States secretary of state, <a href="http://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/henry-kissinger.html" target="_blank">Henry Kissinger</a>, then embarked on shuttle diplomacy between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Israel in an attempt to reach a settlement to the conflict. <br />
<br />
He envisioned a step-by-step process that the U.S. would control. As a result, various phased withdrawals of Israeli forces from the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/mount-sinai.html" target="_blank">Sinai</a> were agreed upon and were to be guaranteed by U.S. forces stationed in the peninsula, but the overall cause of the conflict, namely the conflicting claims of Israel and the Palestinians, remained unresolved. <br />
<br />
Sadat attempted to revive the process by making a dramatic visit to Israel, where he spoke before the Knesset, the Israeli parliament, in 1977. Sadat was the first Arab leader publicly to visit Israel, and his gesture altered the psychological dimensions of the conflict and made it appear that peace between the Arabs and Israel was possible. <br />
<br />
In 1978 the United States president Jimmy Carter brought Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin and Sadat together for 13 days of occasionally acrimonious negotiations at Camp David. These negotiations led to the 1979 peace treaty between Egypt and Israel that was signed at a well-publicized ceremony hosted by Carter on the White House lawn in 1979. The treaty provided for the gradual withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Sinai and full diplomatic recognition between the two states. <br />
<br />
Carter anticipated that further negotiations to resolve the differences between Israel and the Palestinians, the cessation of Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories, and the return of some land for an overall peace settlement would follow. The Arab states and the Palestinians rejected the treaty because it did not resolve most of the basic issues, and Israel continued to build settlements in the territories, further angering the Palestinians. <br />
<br />
In 1981 Egyptian Islamists who opposed the treaty assassinated Sadat; however, his successor, Hosni Mubarak, maintained the treaty in what has been called a “cold peace” between Egypt and Israel. In 1984 a full peace treaty between Israel and Jordan under King Hussein was signed. Hussein and then Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin, both military officers, had a cordial relationship, and this treaty has also held.<br />
<br />
During the 1970s the PLO also gained recognition from a number of nations around the world. In spite of Israel’s opposition, Yasir Arafat even addressed the UN General Assembly in New York City. Israel attempted to eliminate the PLO by attacking its power base in Lebanon in 1982. <br />
<br />
The war seriously damaged the PLO infrastructure but did not destroy the organization that, with international assent, moved its base of operations to Tunisia. UN peace-keeping forces remained in southern Lebanon along the Israeli border, but a new indigenous Lebanese Islamist movement, Hizbollah, then began attacks on Israeli forces both in Lebanon and Israel.<br />
<br />
As early as 1974 the PLO hinted at the acceptance of a two state solution, or the so-called Palestinian ministate comprising East Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip, occupied by Israel in the 1967 war. The Arab governments also made gestures regarding acceptance of Israel; the Fahd Plan of 1982, sponsored by Saudi Arabia, called for all the states in the region to live in peace. <br />
<br />
The Fez Plan of 1982 reiterated the Arab states’ willingness to consider trading land for peace as long as some form of Palestinian self-determination was achieved. These overtures were largely ignored by both Israel and its major ally, the United States, although the United States did have some secret contacts with the PLO. <br />
<br />
After 1988, when the PLO and Arafat agreed to recognize Israel’s right to exist, to recognize UN Resolution 242, and to renounce terrorism, the United States agreed publicly to negotiate with it as the representative of the Palestinians.<br />
<br />
The PLO and Arafat were further weakened by their support for Saddam Hussein during the First Gulf War; in retaliation the Gulf States, especially <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/kuwait.html" target="_blank">Kuwait</a>, halted financial support for the PLO, and Kuwait ousted tens of thousands of Palestinians who then generally took refugee in Jordan. With the collapse of the Soviet Union the PLO also lost a key ally. <br />
<br />
With the end of the cold war, the United States became the major mediator in the long-running dispute. In 1991 U.S. Secretary of State James Baker succeeded in bringing all of the parties to the conflict—Jordanians, Syrians, Israelis, and Palestinians—together for the first time for direct negotiations. <br />
<br />
The Palestinians were represented by a delegation from the Occupied Territories who unofficially represented the PLO. The Israeli prime minister, Yitzhak Shamir of Likud, the hard-line Right party, was a reluctant participant, and the negotiations dragged on without appreciable progress until 1993.<br />
<br />
<b>Direct Negotiations</b><br />
<br />
At the same time, in 1993 the new Israeli Labor Party government under <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/yitzhak-rabin.html" target="_blank">Yitzhak Rabin</a> and Shimon Peres agreed to direct negotiations with PLO representatives. These top secret talks were held in Norway, a respected neutral party, and resulted in the first Oslo Accords. <br />
<br />
The accords included the Declaration of Principles (DOP) and letters of mutual recognition that were publicly signed in September 1993 on the White House lawn with President Bill Clinton as host. The occasion culminated with a famous handshake between the two old enemies, Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasir Arafat. <br />
<br />
Under Oslo I, Israel agreed to withdraw from Jericho and most of the Gaza Strip, and a five-year process of negotiations for further withdrawals was to result in the creation of what the Palestinians believed would be an independent Palestinian state. The PLO was to maintain order in its territories and prevent attacks on Israelis. <br />
<br />
The territories were then turned over to the Palestine Authority under the PLO. In 1994 a Jewish settler massacred Palestinian worshippers in the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron; and Hamas, the main Palestinian Islamist group, retaliated with a car bomb in Israel that killed Israeli civilians. Arafat condemned suicide attacks, but they continued. Meanwhile, the PA was also charged with corruption and inefficiency and lost much popular support among the Palestinians.<br />
<br />
Under Oslo II in 1995, Israel began a phased withdrawal from Ramallah, Nablus, and Bethlehem on the West Bank. However, the issues of Israeli settlements, the final status of Jerusalem, and the refugees remained undecided. Militants on both sides opposed these agreements, and in 1995 an Israeli radical assassinated Rabin. Meanwhile, violence in the territories continued. None of these negotiations settled the dispute between Israel and Syria regarding the Golan Heights.<br />
<br />
The Likud, under Binyamin Netanyahu, won the elections following Rabin’s death, and once again the negotiations stalled. Israel withdrew from Hebron in 1997, one year past the agreed upon time frame. In the Wye Memorandum of 1998 (named after the Wye Plantation in Maryland where the talks were held) the United States mediated further Israeli withdrawals, and Arafat pledged to combat terrorism and to take steps to ensure further Israeli security. <br />
<br />
However, Netanyahu’s government collapsed owing to mounting opposition from within his own party, and the withdrawals were delayed. Thus the expected deadline of 1999 passed without the establishment of a viable independent Palestinian state on the 22 percent of historic Palestine proposed for it. In addition, new Jewish settlements continued to be built or enlarged within the territories still held by Israel.<br />
<br />
In a popular move within Israel, Prime Minister Ehud Barak withdrew Israeli troops from southern Lebanon in spring 2000. In the summer Barak met with President Clinton and Arafat at Camp David. At Camp David Barak presented an offer for a final settlement that involved the Israeli withdrawal from much of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip; Israeli control over the airspace, water aquifers and all of Jerusalem; the denial of the right of return of Palestinian refugees; and the continuation of some of the settlements. <br />
<br />
Although Clinton pressured Arafat to accept the proposal, Arafat knew he could not agree to give up the right of return and some Palestinian control over East Jerusalem, particularly the holy site of Haram al-Sharif, and survive politically. He rejected the offer but failed or refused to present a counter offer, and the talks failed.<br />
<br />
Shortly thereafter a Palestinian uprising, the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/al-aqsa-intifada.html" target="_blank">al-Aqsa Intifada</a>, broke out. As the violence mounted, many Israelis lost confidence in the peace process and Barak. A last attempt to revive the process was made at Taba (in the Sinai Peninsula close to the Israeli border) in January 2001. Under the Taba proposals, Israeli would retain about 6 percent of the West Bank, reduce the number of settlements, and the Palestinians would receive a state. <br />
<br />
But the two sides could not agree on the status of Jerusalem, the right of return, or the Israeli settlement near Jericho that effectively split the Palestinian West Bank into two parts. The Likud Party under Ariel Sharon won the ensuing Israeli elections, and Sharon became the new prime minister in 2001; he supported the crushing of the al-Aqsa uprising by military means.<br />
<br />
The Arab states adopted the Saudi peace initiative whereby they would recognize Israeli in exchange for the creation of a Palestinian state in the territories in 2002. In 2003 some former Israeli officials and leading PLO members proposed the Geneva Plan. Rather than adopting the step-by-step process that had not succeeded, this plan was a full comprehensive agreement, in which the end game was known. <br />
<br />
The plan provided for a Palestinian state in most of the West Bank and all of the Gaza Strip and Israeli control over three settlement blocs in the West Bank and around Jerusalem. Palestinians would control the Haram al-Sharif in East Jerusalem, and Jews would control the Wailing Wall. <br />
<br />
The refugees would receive some compensation and the freedom to return to the Palestinian state. Provisions were made for mediation of disputes, and the Palestinians were to have a security force, not an army. Israel would keep two monitoring posts as an early warning system on the West Bank for no more than 15 years. <br />
<br />
Sharon rejected the plan although it received some muted political support within Israel. Arafat did not give full assent for the plan but did not openly reject it. Nor did other states, especially the United States, adopt the plan, and it died for want of support.<br />
<br />
Sharon and his successor, Ehud Olmert, adopted a policy of unilateral disengagement whereby Israel made decisions without negotiations or discussions with the Palestinians. Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip and dismantled the settlements, but periodically launched military attacks into the territory and retained control over its borders, thereby cutting it off from trade and outside support. <br />
<br />
The Bush administration’s support for Israel and Sharon lessened the credibility of the U.S. as a neutral mediator to the dispute among Palestinians and other Arabs. After <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/hamas.html" target="_blank">Hamas</a> won the Palestinian elections in 2006 negotiations broke down entirely. <br />
<br />
Although Hamas suggested implementing a long-term cease-fire, it refused to recognize Israel’s right to exist. Israel considered Hamas, which continued suicide bomb attacks against Israelis within the territories and Israel proper, a terrorist organization and rejected all negotiations with it.<br />
<br />
As the peace process dragged on, a generation of disillusioned and angry Palestinians grew up under Israeli military occupation. Conversely, many Israelis knew the Palestinians only as suicide bombers or violent opponents.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-16745939654129139532013-08-17T02:34:00.002-07:002017-03-02T07:09:26.382-08:00Arab-Israeli War (1967)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/06/us-communist-party.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Arab-Israeli War (1967)" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-7Q_1vXLC0Qk/Ug9B4clhc0I/AAAAAAAAHuY/Hd4P_2E3LCo/s1600/Arab-Israeli-1967.gif" title="Arab-Israeli War (1967)" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arab-Israeli War (1967)</td></tr>
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<br />
The 1967 Arab-Israeli War lasted six days and was a resounding military victory for Israel but failed to achieve a resolution to the Arab-Israeli conflict. In 1966 border incidents and incursions into Israel by Fatah Palestinian guerrilla fighters increased, and Israeli launched a major military raid into Jordan in the fall of 1966.<br />
<br />
In spring 1967 the Israeli prime minister, Levi Eshkol—a dove by Israeli political standards—responded to demands for a stronger stance against Arab provocations by agreeing to the cultivation of demilitarized zones along the border with Syria.<br />
<br />
Predictably Syria opened fire, and Israel retaliated by shooting down a number of Syrian jet fighters. The Syrians, presumably encouraged by their Soviet allies, believed they were about to be attacked by Israel and appealed to their ally <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/gamal-abdel-nasser-egyptian-president.html" target="_blank">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> in Egypt for help.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0345461924/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0345461924&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=WIJN6TR4KRW5K5BN" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0345461924&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0345461924" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B002IPG7GQ/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B002IPG7GQ&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=LUPO6IRFOGFZLQZO" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B002IPG7GQ&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=B002IPG7GQ" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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In an attempt to gain diplomatic support and to look like he was doing something for his Arab allies, on May 16 Nasser asked that the UN withdraw its peacekeeping troops from the frontier posts in the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/mount-sinai.html" target="_blank">Sinai</a> Peninsula. Nasser mistakenly believed that a protracted period of negotiations would follow; however, according to the UN Charter troops could only be placed in a territory at the invitation of the host country.<br />
<br />
Consequently, the UN secretary-general U Thant promptly acceded to the Egyptian request and ordered the withdrawal of the peacekeeping force. Egyptian units occupied the posts including the vital Sharm al-Sheikh position along the Gulf of Aqaba, on May 21. Nasser then gave conflicting statements as to whether the waterway would be closed to shipping going to the southern Israeli port of Elath.<br />
<br />
After the 1956 Arab-Israeli War, Israel had announced that it would view any closure of the waterway as casus belli, or cause for war. On May 23 United States president <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/lyndon-b-johnson-us-president.html" target="_blank">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> publicly announced that the United States considered the waterway an international one, thereby supporting the Israeli position.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/07/boxer-rebellion.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Israeli tank army" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5WfJo760uIc/WLgzwhqY6GI/AAAAAAAAd9Q/qoZYIEY0uOs0YNO_2HjwUMWPlwetICrDwCLcB/s1600/tankis.jpg" title="Israeli tank army" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Israeli tank army</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Eshkol advised caution in an attempt to avoid full-scale war, but military leaders and hawks in Israel favored immediate action. A flurry of diplomatic activity ensued, with Nasser seeing UN and United States representatives in Cairo and Abba Eban of Israel touring the Great Powers to secure their support in the event of war. The Soviets feared a full-scale war that might escalate into a confrontation between the superpowers and used the hotline to Washington to prevent either power from becoming directly involved. <br />
<br />
After receiving notes from both Johnson and the Soviets urging calm, Eskhol convinced most of the Israeli cabinet ministers on May 28 that all diplomatic measures should be used before recourse to war. However, irresponsible rhetoric by Arab leaders inflamed fears among Israelis that they were about to be overrun by Arab forces and also convinced Arabs that their militaries would win any war with Israel.<br />
<br />
Although the CIA and other experts predicted that Israel, with its military superiority, would quickly win any war with its Arab neighbors, the general public in the West, especially in the United States, was also convinced that Israel was in peril.<br />
<br />
On May 30 Egypt and Jordan joined in a joint defense pact, and the PLO was allowed to open offices in Jordan. Iraq also joined the pact. Nasser was approached by both the Soviets and the United States urging a diplomatic settlement and apparently believed that Israel would not attack as long as diplomatic negotiations were in process.<br />
<br />
On May 31 General <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0300149417" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="d40274863013303b35d701a23fc059dd" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Moshe Dayan" href="http://www.amazon.com/Moshe-Dayan-Israels-Controversial-Jewish/dp/0300149417/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=d40274863013303b35d701a23fc059dd&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_241498" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Moshe Dayan</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_241498" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=d40274863013303b35d701a23fc059dd&_cb=1480476800871" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />, a noted hawk, became the Israeli defense minister, and war seemed likely. On June 5 the Israeli air force launched surprise attacks against Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, and Syria. Within two hours over 400 Arab planes had been destroyed, almost all on the ground. In spite of the boasts by Arab leaders, their militaries had not been prepared for war.<br />
<br />
With total air superiority Israel launched a threepronged attack (almost a repeat of the military action in the 1956 war) and easily cut through the Egyptian forces, taking the Gaza Strip (administered by Egypt) and also moved across Sinai to the east bank of the Suez Canal. On June 8 Israel and Egypt agreed to a ceasefire in the Sinai.<br />
<br />
On June 5 Israeli forces also moved against Jordanian forces in the West Bank, taking all of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by June 7. Over 100,000 more Palestinians became refugees as thousands fled across the Jordan River to escape the war. On June 27 the Knesset agreed to a proclamation that Jerusalem was one city.<br />
<br />
On June 8 Israeli forces moved against Syria in the north while the UN was still negotiating a cease-fire. In a still unexplained attack, Israel, on the same day, torpedoed the USS Liberty, a spy ship deployed in the eastern Mediterranean. By June 9 Israel had taken the Golan Heights from Syria, and a cease-fire was agreed to on June 10.<br />
<br />
Taking responsibility for the disastrous defeat, Nasser resigned on June 9 but was brought back to power by popular acclaim. In support of their Arab allies the Soviet bloc severed diplomatic relations with Israel in the following days. In the war, the Arabs suffered over 26,000 killed, wounded, captured, or missing and lost over 1,200 tanks. Israel lost 6,000 killed, wounded, captured, or missing; 100 tanks; and 40 airplanes.<br />
<br />
UN Resolution 242 called for the return of territories taken in war but pointedly did not specify all of the territories; this would become a point of contention in future negotiations. The war had been a humiliating loss for the Arab states. Owing to its decisive victory, Israel expected a full settlement, but no Arab government could hope to survive if it accepted an agreement with Israel that did not provide for the return of the newly conquered territory and the recognition of some form of Palestinian state. The impacts of the war were far-reaching and continue to reverberate in the region to the present day.<br />
<br />
After the war, Israel announced that it would only accept face-to-face negotiations with the Arabs. From June 14 to 16, Arab leaders met at Khartoum, Sudan, and forged a united front. They announced that there would be no negotiations with Israel until it withdrew from the Occupied Territories and that no separate peace would be made by any individual Arab state. This caused Egypt’s ostracism from the Arab world following Sadat’s unilateral peace treaty with Israel in 1979. As a consequence of the impasse, Israel continued to occupy all of the Sinai Peninsula (Egyptian territory), the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights (Syrian territory).<br />
<br />
The Soviets rearmed Egypt and Syria and increased their presence in the region. From 1968 to 1970 Nasser waged a war of attrition along the canal, and the Israelis built what they believed to be an impregnable defense line on the east bank of the canal. The line was breached by an Egyptian offensive in the 1973 Arab-Israeli War.<br />
<br />
Initially Israel was probably willing to return most of the Occupied Territories in exchange for a full peace and recognition by the Arab states. The longer Israel held the territories and the more Israeli settlements were established, the less land it was willing to trade for peace.<br />
<br />
As a result of the war Palestinians concluded that the Arab governments would not be able to achieve their goal of an independent Palestinian state and that they would have to rely on themselves. This directly contributed to the growth of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/palestine-liberation-organization-plo.html" target="_blank">Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)</a> as the sole representative of the Palestinian people. It also set the stage for a cycle of violence between Palestinian and Israeli forces that continued into the 21st century.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-48599241501140480522013-08-16T20:51:00.000-07:002016-11-29T19:38:58.575-08:00Arab-Israeli War (1973)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/06/eugene-victor-debs.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Egyptian army crossing suez canal" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RKJjIT6_y3A/Ug7sss2WKEI/AAAAAAAAHt8/8yIo7gELYW8/s1600/Crossing-suez.jpg" title="Egyptian army crossing suez canal" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Egyptian army crossing suez canal</td></tr>
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<br />
The 1973 Arab-Israeli War (October 6–26), known as the Yom Kippur War in Israel and the Ramadan War among Arabs, was the fourth major military conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors. During the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Israel occupied Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian-Palestinian territories; despite international efforts by United States secretary of state William Rogers and UN special envoy Gunnar Jarring, no peace agreement was reached, and Israel continued to occupy the territories taken in 1967. Although in March 1972 Syrian president Hafez al-Assad publicly expressed his readiness to accept UN Resolution 242 recognizing Israel with the return of all of the Syrian Golan Heights, Israeli policy remained unchanged. <br />
<br />
Syria and Egypt, with the support of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/saudi-arabia.html" target="_blank">Saudi Arabia</a>, therefore decided to initiate a limited war in order to break the political stalemate. The Egyptian president, Anwar el-Sadat, was also anxious to relieve domestic discontent and to force the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> to supply Egypt with more advanced weaponry. <br />
<br />
It appears that Sadat and al-Assad began the secret planning of a joint strategy in 1971 and by the end of the year had reached an agreement on a broad strategy of action. In August 1973 the Egyptian chief of staff, Lieutenant General Saad el-Shazly, and his Syrian counterpart, Yusuf Shakkur, formally agreed on two possible dates for the war: September 7–11 or October 5–10. Less than a week later Egypt and Syria agreed on October 6. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
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<td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00OVFWDJQ/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00OVFWDJQ&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=GFPPPGU3VHDZOKDU" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B00OVFWDJQ&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=B00OVFWDJQ" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00Z97FYLE/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00Z97FYLE&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=WE5QYMFGUXOLE62E" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B00Z97FYLE&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=B00Z97FYLE" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td>
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At the time, in spite of Arab military preparations, Israeli military intelligence did not believe that war was imminent. The possibility of Israel’s being taken by surprise was not seriously considered, nor was the thought accepted as valid that Arabs might launch a limited war to force serious political negotiations.<br />
<br />
The Egyptian and Syrian attack on October 6 was therefore an unpleasant and shocking surprise for Israel. Hostilities began when the Syrians attacked the Golan Heights and the Egyptian army surprised Israel by crossing the Suez Canal on a pontoon bridge and by breaching the supposedly impregnable Israeli Bar Lev Defense Line in Sinai. Syrian armored and infantry divisions stormed the Golan plateau but were stopped several miles from the eastern shore of Lake Tiberias and the River Jordan.<br />
<br />
On October 8 the Israeli defense minister, Moshe Dayan, ordered the deployment of Israeli nuclear weapons, fearing that the “third temple” (the state of Israel) might be in danger. His fears proved premature; the Israeli army regained the initiative, and General Ariel Sharon launched a counteroffensive and established a bridgehead on the east bank of the Suez Canal, only 60 miles from Cairo. A cease-fire was agreed upon on October 24. The situation was similar in the north, where Syrian advances on the Golan were reversed, and the outskirts of Damascus came into range of Israeli artillery.<br />
<br />
Three major factors enabled the Israeli forces to reverse their initial losses. First, once the superior Israeli military forces had been fully mobilized they retook initiatives on both fronts. Second, a crucial role was played by an enormous airlift of U.S. military supplies. The airlift, larger than the Berlin airlift, provided Israel with some 24,000 tons of arms, ammunition, tanks, missiles, and howitzers. <br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://adf.ly/A5MtN" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Destroyed israeli tank" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-NE4JM9zHkSM/Ug7ttQTVlKI/AAAAAAAAHuI/TzktqX8qPeU/s1600/destroyed-israeli.jpg" title="Destroyed israeli tank" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Destroyed israeli tank</td></tr>
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<br />
A third and crucial factor was the differing political and strategic goals of Sadat and al-Assad. Sadat had started a limited war to shatter the status quo and pressure the United States to mediate the dispute in order to regain the Sinai Peninsula. Assad wanted to retake the entire Golan and put pressure on Israel to give up the occupied Palestinian territories. <br />
<br />
After two days of successful advances, the Egyptian forces were ordered to adopt a defensive stance by Sadat, but, in reaction to Syrian setbacks in the north and the U.S. airlift, Egyptian forces reinitiated the attack against Israel on October 14. However, they failed to regain the initiative.<br />
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The Soviet Union was reluctant to become further involved, and U.S. secretary of state Henry Kissinger’s skillful diplomacy resulted in a political gain for the United States and the drawing closer together of the United States and Sadat. <br />
<br />
On October 22 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 338 calling on “all parties to the present fighting to cease all firing and terminate all military activity ... to start immediately after the cease-fire the implementation of the Security Council Resolution 242 in all of its parts aimed at establishing just and durable peace in the Middle East.” Sadat accepted the cease-fire, and Syria officially recognized it on October 23.<br />
<br />
Israel continued its military action against Egypt, however, and on the evening of October 23 Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev sent a letter to U.S. president <a href="http://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/richard-nixon.html" target="_blank">Richard Nixon</a> proposing joint U.S.-Soviet intervention to ensure the cease-fire. He also threatened that if the United States did not take action, the Soviet Union would be faced with the urgent necessity to “consider taking appropriate steps unilaterally.” In response Kissinger put U.S. forces on full nuclear alert on October 24. <br />
<br />
The Soviets did not intervene and over the next few days the cease-fire was implemented. Although Israel proved victorious in the end, the war had been a great shock to the state. For the Arabs, the war was a limited success and seemed to rehabilitate the Egyptian army after its disastrous defeat in the 1967 war.<br />
<br />
In May 1974 Syria and Israel reached a disengagement agreement, and Israel agreed to withdraw from parts of the Golan and the town of Quneitra but continued to occupy the rest of the Golan. Assad’s achievements improved his image in Syria. The war also increased U.S. power and weakened Soviet influence in the region. The United States subsequently mediated negotiations between Egypt and Israel, leading toward the Camp David accords and the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty in 1979.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-56817527808582729822013-08-16T11:37:00.000-07:002017-08-27T03:05:33.238-07:00Arab-Israeli War (1982)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/06/blaise-diagne.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Arab-Israeli War (1982)" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-B7ihM1hk9gY/Ug5uj4P7tJI/AAAAAAAAHto/FhWPIUO2Z4c/s1600/arab-israel-82.jpg" title="Arab-Israeli War (1982)" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arab-Israeli War (1982)</td></tr>
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<br />
In 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon in an attempt to eliminate the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/palestine-liberation-organization-plo.html" target="_blank">Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)</a> once and for all. In 1970, following <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00COBA1VQ/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00COBA1VQ&linkId=12230726e907321b0c85d22d60a86a3b" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Black September</a>, when Palestinian forces were defeated in Jordan, the PLO moved its base of operations to Lebanon. The presence of large numbers of Palestinians further disrupted the fragile Lebanese political system, which was based on a confessional system reflecting the many different religious communities in the country. <br />
<br />
When the PLO launched attacks from southern Lebanon, Israel often retaliated by attacking Lebanon and demanding that <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00PMG2TVK/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00PMG2TVK&linkId=82ac095f64457c9dc2a876f4735e66c8" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Lebanon</a> control the PLO. Some Lebanese, particularly the Maronite Christians who held the preponderance of political power, blamed the PLO for the problems with Israel and for Lebanon’s domestic instability. They also wanted the PLO out of the country.<br />
<br />
After civil war broke out in Lebanon in 1975 the central government ceased to be effective, and the PLO was able to establish a state within a state. Although the PLO was not the major cause for the civil war— internal political contradictions in Lebanon were—it was a contributing factor. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/113729082X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=113729082X&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=BCTHCL4RNJQIV326" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=113729082X&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=113729082X" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1841762946/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=9c316f799377c7f0da7959f9ef21d4d3" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1841762946&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1841762946" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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<br />
Initially the PLO attempted to remain neutral in the war, but as violence throughout the country escalated, it was drawn into the fighting on the side of the <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1137473576" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="1782116332747054a7c4b0d64f97283c" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Sunni Muslims" href="http://www.amazon.com/Theology-Creed-Sunni-Islam-Brotherhood/dp/1137473576/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=1782116332747054a7c4b0d64f97283c&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_7699110" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Sunni Muslims</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_7699110" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=1782116332747054a7c4b0d64f97283c&_cb=1480479402843" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />, who, unlike other groups in Lebanon, largely lacked their own military militias. <br />
<br />
The PLO also provided social services and militarily trained some Shi’i in the south, who traditionally had been the poorest and least powerful group in the country. However, PLO fighters were often arrogant, and gradually Shi’i communities came to resent their presence.<br />
<br />
Following increased attacks by the PLO, including terrorist attacks against Israeli civilians in the north, Israel occupied southern Lebanon for 120 straight days in 1978. During this time Israel trained and financed a surrogate force, the South Lebanon Army (SLA), commanded by a former officer of the Lebanese army. It continued to operate as a pro-Israeli force in South Lebanon into the 1990s. <br />
<br />
The Israeli attacks depopulated much of South Lebanon, as over 200,000 people, mostly Shi’i villagers, fled to South Beirut, where they settled in slum areas and refugee camps. During the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0815603770/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0815603770&linkId=b0aef957841e5becd9ca3d4c32ec3e4d" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Lebanese civil war</a> Israel also established direct ties with Maronite Christian forces, the Phalange or Kataeb, led by Bashir Gemayel, who was intent on removing the Palestinians from Lebanon and establishing Maronite control over the government.<br />
<br />
By 1982 the PLO feared a major Israeli attack in Lebanon and moderated its incursions across the border. But the hard-line Likud government, under Prime Minister Menachem Begin, was determined to crush the PLO. In June 1982 the Palestinian terrorist <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="B01FKTG1W6" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="b57adfc6ae72afcbe5571f5c1dc378db" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Abu Nidal" href="http://www.amazon.com/Abu-Nidal-Notorious-Terrorist-1992-02-05/dp/B01FKTG1W6/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=b57adfc6ae72afcbe5571f5c1dc378db&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_5955962" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Abu Nidal</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_5955962" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=b57adfc6ae72afcbe5571f5c1dc378db&_cb=1480479484575" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> organization, whose leader had been condemned to death by Arafat and the PLO, attempted to assassinate the Israeli ambassador, Shlomo Argov, in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1743218567/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1743218567&linkId=3ef41f10dd9224504f3f0a528d32fac1" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">London</a>. <br />
<br />
The Israelis retaliated with a full-scale invasion of Lebanon. Although the Israeli cabinet had approved an invasion 25 miles into Lebanon, the hawkish Israeli defense minister and war hero General <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1400065879/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1400065879&linkId=543a9a9b5b6c5e3b013a226b6da0a8df" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Ariel Sharon</a> ordered troops that had little difficulty securing the south to advance directly on to Beirut. <br />
<br />
As the Israelis advanced, the PLO forces also moved north toward <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520271262/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0520271262&linkId=c9e4fa0fa8d07493c54964fa90f15da0" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Beirut</a>. Within a week Israeli forces had linked up with Bashir Gemayel’s militia in East Beirut and besieged West Beirut, home to about 1 million civilians and also the PLO headquarters. The Israeli air force and navy bombarded the city, and as the siege dragged on, the Israeli military attempted but failed to take the city.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://q.gs/4IqaA" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Syrian army" border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-UvOP5hjH1xI/Ug5uwXnv5kI/AAAAAAAAHtw/kfOBbeSBxVU/s1600/Syrian-army.jpg" title="Syrian army" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Syrian army</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The war resulted in a heavy loss of civilian life, and the international community, appalled by the carnage, demanded a cease-fire. Negotiations led to the withdrawal of PLO leaders, including Yasir Arafat and many fighters, to Tunis on August 16. International forces, including French, United States, and Italian, moved in to protect the civilian population in West Beirut, but within two weeks president <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/ronald-reagan.html" target="_blank">Ronald Reagan</a> declared the war over and removed United States troops.<br />
<br />
On August 23 Bashir Gemayel was elected president of Lebanon, but to the dismay of Sharon, he refused to sign a peace treaty with Israel. Several days later Gemayel was killed in his headquarters, and his brother ultimately became the new Lebanese president. <br />
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In retaliation for the killing—which they blamed on the Palestinians—Lebanese militias, under the observation of Israeli troops, entered the refugee camps of Sabra and Shatila in Beirut, and from September 16 to 18 massacred several thousand people, mostly Palestinian women and children. In Israel major demonstrations against the government erupted for having allowed such attacks. <br />
<br />
Although Sharon was held accountable for the massacre and forced to resign, he returned to politics and in 2001 became the Israeli prime minister. In the aftermath of the massacre international forces, including U.S. Marines, returned to Lebanon. They, too, were drawn into the Lebanese civil war and became targets for suicide bombers. Thus, even without the presence of the PLO, the war continued. <br />
<br />
In 1983 suicide bombers killed 17 Americans and 40 others at the U.S. embassy, 58 French soldiers in a car bomb, and 241 U.S. Marines in a truck bombing at the supposedly safe Beirut airport. When more attacks and kidnappings followed, the international forces withdrew. Israeli forces also gradually withdrew from Beirut but remained in South Lebanon. <br />
<br />
Lebanon descended into greater anarchy until the civil war ended under the 1989 Taif Agreement, brokered by Saudi Arabia and supported by other Arab states. The 1982 war was a military defeat for the PLO and damaged much of its social and welfare infrastructure in Lebanon, but it did not destroy the organization. Tunisia remained the PLO headquarters until the signing of the 1993 Oslo Accords, when it moved to Gaza and Jericho in the West Bank.<br />
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Initially the Shi’i in South Lebanon welcomed the Israelis but gradually they turned against them when the troops remained. <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/hizbollah.html" target="_blank">Hizbollah</a> (Party of God), which formed as a result of the 1982 war, became the major Shi’i group to fight against the Israeli occupation. Israel was to sustain more deaths and casualties from the struggle with Hizbollah in Lebanon than from the PLO. <br />
<br />
In May 2000 Israel pulled out of southern Lebanon except for Shaba Farms claimed by Syria and as Lebanese territory by Hizbollah. However, confrontations between Israeli and Hizbollah forces continued over the disputed area and in 2006 Israel again bombarded and invaded Lebanon, this time in an attempt to destroy Hizbollah.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-9458931109312967592013-08-16T10:24:00.002-07:002017-03-17T21:48:36.221-07:00Balkans (1991 – present)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/pontius-pilate.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img alt="Balkans states" border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eMVCHFiU_7o/Ug5eoqxIHSI/AAAAAAAAHtY/8lXkid3CVYM/s1600/baltic-states.gif" title="Balkans states" /></a></div>
<br />
Since 1991 the region of the Balkans has been a place of dynamic change. The region (excluding Greece) has been divided into two subregions: the Western Balkans, consisting of Albania and the entities that emerged from the breakup of Yugoslavia—Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia, and Montenegro, and Bulgaria and Romania. The division of the Balkans into two subregions reflects the distinct dynamics in the two sets of states. <br />
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For instance, the Western Balkans were subjected post-1991 to the dynamics of building nation-states, while Bulgaria and Romania embarked on the path of postcommunist consolidation of democracy, marked by free elections, market liberalization, and the strengthening of civil society. <br />
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However, the underlying feature characterizing the developments in all Balkan countries was the uncertainty of their transition process. This may be the main reason why Slovenia, which emerged from the dissolution of Yugoslavia, not only managed to distance itself from the Balkans with its domestic and foreign policy objectives but also ultimately “left” the region altogether.<br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0312424930/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0312424930&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=U4YR5P5QZ4QWK2MC" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0312424930&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0312424930" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1590173317/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1590173317&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=NJ5YWFFA4CBLCA6V" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1590173317&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1590173317" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Ambiguity dominated the Balkan states for the better part of the 1990s. This pattern changed as a result of the Kosovo crisis of 1999 for two reasons. First, and perhaps tragically, by that time the nation-state-building projects in the western Balkans had reached a plateau of stability, which allowed the countries from that subregion to focus on their democratization. The uneven transition processes in Bulgaria and Romania had led to the establishment of the first reformist governments in those countries.<br />
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Second, in the aftermath of the Kosovo crisis the two dominant international institutions in Europe—the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/european-union.html" target="_blank">European Union (EU)</a> and the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/north-atlantic-treaty-organization-nato.html" target="_blank">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a>—altered their perceptions of the Balkans. <br />
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After 1999 they recognized the candidate status of Bulgaria and Romania and outlined the prospect of membership for the countries of the Western Balkans. Such twin alteration of the intraregional and extraregional trends in the Balkans informed the 21st-century processes in the region.<br />
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<b>Bulgaria</b><br />
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Despite their being lumped together, the postcommunist development trajectories of Bulgaria and Romania were characterized by quite different dynamics. The transition in Bulgaria, which began on November 10, 1989, with the removal of Todor Zhivkov as head of state, was in effect an internal coup within the Bulgarian Communist Party. <br />
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These developments set up the background for a rather unpredictable transformation process, one that was initiated from “above” and did not reflect a significant social anxiety with the communist status quo. The pattern of power up to 1997 was marked by governments that came, tried their policies, and were ousted by either the corrective of popular unrest or a change of allegiance of coalition partners. <br />
<br />
After 1997, however, governments followed the road of democratization and market reforms fairly consistently and pursued the objectives of EU and <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1601272022" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="58195ac8dc2b628bab94312d88e8f753" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="NATO" href="http://www.amazon.com/NATOs-Balancing-Act-David-Yost/dp/1601272022/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=58195ac8dc2b628bab94312d88e8f753&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_4524068" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">NATO</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_4524068" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=58195ac8dc2b628bab94312d88e8f753&_cb=1480479753719" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> integration. As a result, on March 29, 2004, Bulgaria became a member of NATO and joined the EU on January 1, 2007.<br />
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<b>Romania</b><br />
<br />
In Romania, the transition process began with a series of violent protests across the country in December 1989, which culminated with the execution of the communist dictator Nicolae Ceaus¸escu on Christmas night, 1989. During the winter of 1989–90 a new political formation emerged, which called itself the National Salvation Front (NSF). It established itself as the vanguard of the revolution and ruled in Romania until 1996. <br />
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During this period the government was afflicted by internal dissent as a result of the authoritarian tendencies of the NSF leader Ion Iliescu and domestic unrest caused by both the interethnic tensions with the substantial Hungarian minority located in Transylvania and the social disorder caused by the miners’ uprising during 1991. Another set of problems was associated with the NSF’s wavering foreign policy. <br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/shirin-ebadi.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bucharest, Romania, nowdays" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-gbC0WIYlKlo/Vii31K6XRaI/AAAAAAAAR_Q/zxLtguX8hJk/s1600/Bucharest.jpg" title="Bucharest, Romania, nowdays" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bucharest, Romania, nowdays</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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After the elections in 1996, however, consecutive governments did away with the uncertainty characterizing the country’s initial transition process. Thus, like Bulgaria, Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and joined the EU on January 1, 2007.<br />
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<b>Albania</b><br />
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The post-1991 period in the subregion of the western Balkans was in many respects even more heterogeneous than the one in Bulgaria and Romania. Although all countries in the subregion experienced violent upheavals of one sort or another, they dealt with their effects differently. Albania was the only country from the western Balkans that did not emerge from the dissolution of former <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/breakup-and-war-in-yugoslavia.html" target="_blank">Yugoslavia</a>. <br />
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Yet internal conflict beleaguered its postcommunist development. The period up to the 1992 elections was generally characterized by chaos, which led to an exacerbation of the division between the north and the south of the country, rapid growth of organized crime, and the beginning of large-scale emigration fueled by the economic deterioration. <br />
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Subsequent governments failed to address these problems, which led to a severe crisis in the country during 1997. It was spurred by the collapse of several financial pyramid schemes, which wiped out the savings of the majority of the Albanian population. During the unrest, military depots were raided and scores of weapons were looted. <br />
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Order was restored only after the international community dispatched a military force to the country during Operation Alba. Albania did not fully recover from this crisis, and in 2006 continued to be the poorest country in Europe.<br />
<b><br />
</b> <b>Republic of Macedonia</b><br />
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The transition of the other countries from the western Balkans was marked by the wars of Yugoslav dissolution. Unlike the other republics of former Yugoslavia, however, Macedonia succeeded to gain its independence peacefully after a referendum on September 8, 1991. The country’s transition, however, was hampered by the embargo on former Yugoslavia imposed by the international community. <br />
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At the same time the country faced an embargo from Greece, which refused to recognize the country by its constitutional name and continued to refer to it as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Concurrently the existence of the Macedonian nation and language was challenged by Bulgaria. Furthermore the ecumenical independence of the Macedonian Orthodox Church continued to be challenged by the Serbian Orthodox Church. <br />
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None of these challenges threatened the existence of the Macedonian state as much as the tension caused by the conflict with the substantial Albanian minority in the country. In the wake of the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/battle-of-kosovo-1389.html" target="_blank">Kosovo</a> conflict the nearly 25 percent of Albanians living in Macedonia demanded greater recognition of their cultural and political rights. This led to violence during 2001. <br />
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The conflict was settled under pressure from the international community with the signing of the Ohrid Peace Accords in August 2001. As a result of the implementation of these accords the EU recognized Macedonia as a candidate country in December 2005. It became a member of NATO’s Partnership for Peace program in 1995.<br />
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<b>Croatia</b><br />
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The beginning of the democratic transition in Croatia is usually dated to the electoral victory of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in the first multiparty elections in April 1990. The vote for the HDZ, led by Franjo Tudjman, was also a vote for independence from Yugoslavia. <br />
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The subsequent Homeland War lasted until 1995 and witnessed the territorial consolidation of the country and the exodus of the Serbian minority, as well as the military involvement of Croatia in the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The authoritarian rule of President Tudjman, which lasted until his death in 1999, was characterized by nepotism, criminal privatization, and subversion of constitutional practices. <br />
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It was only after the parliamentary and presidential elections in 2000 that Croatia began affiliating itself with European institutions. On May 25, 2000, it became a member of NATO’s Partnership for Peace program. In terms of its relations with the EU, Croatia was the most advanced country from the subregion of the western Balkans. On November 13, 2005, it began its accession negotiations, which were the final stage in gaining membership to the Brussels-based bloc.<br />
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<b>Bosnia-Herzegovina</b><br />
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The development of Bosnia-Herzegovina after 1991 was marked by war, which ravaged the country until 1995. During this time, over 250,000 people lost their lives and many more were either internally displaced or fled the country altogether. <br />
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After the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace (Dayton Accords) in 1995, Bosnia-Herzegovina became a virtual protectorate of the international community with a rotating presidency between the representatives of the three dominant ethnic groups—Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. <br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.co.id/2013/08/muhammad-ayub-khan.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, nowdays" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-UvdUsc2z_9M/Vii0ftoYOmI/AAAAAAAAR_E/m1Nh5zYpN2g/s1600/sarajevo.jpg" title="Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, nowdays" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, nowdays</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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However, decision-making in the country was overseen by a High Representative of the International Community, who could intervene in the domestic affairs of the state and remove elected officials. Bosnia-Herzegovina gradually overcame the division between the three ethnic communities and progressed with the consolidation of its statehood.<br />
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<b>Serbia and Montenegro</b><br />
<br />
Until the Kosovo crisis of 1999, the political process in Serbia and Montenegro was driven by the extreme nationalism propagated by Slobodan Miloševic´, which fuelled the breakup of Yugoslavia. As a result Serbia and Montenegro were involved in several wars and subjected to international sanctions. <br />
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Miloševic´’s ouster during the elections of 2000 and his subsequent arrest and transfer to the International Criminal Court for the former Yugoslavia in 2001 seemed to suggest that the country was distancing itself from the policies of the 1990s. However the murder of the reformist Serbian prime minister Zoran Djindjic on March 12, 2003, reflected the continuing legacy of the wars. <br />
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Montenegro held a referendum on its independence in May 2006 where its citizens voted to become an independent nation. Montenegro declared its independence on June 3, 2006, followed by Serbia’s declaration of independence on June 5, 2006. A further complication was the status of Kosovo, which after the 1999 conflict remained a protectorate of the UN, although still formally a province of Serbia. <br />
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In 2006 representatives of the international community, the Serbs, and the Kosovar Albanians conducted talks however, on the status of the province. The talk yielded little progress, as the Kosovo citizens favored independence, which was formally declared in February 2008, despite Serbia’s objectives.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-70514520912710253652013-08-16T09:12:00.000-07:002017-10-14T11:18:49.298-07:00Madres de Plaza de Mayo Argentina<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/pre-socratic-philosophy.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Madres de Plaza de Mayo Argentina" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-j6TLjj6G_VY/Ug5LfaZ_bTI/AAAAAAAAHs4/ihIr52IDwZc/s1600/Madres-Argentina.jpg" title="Madres de Plaza de Mayo Argentina" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Madres de Plaza de Mayo Argentina</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
One of the best-known human rights organizations to emerge in response to the dirty wars in <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/economic-commission-for-latin-america.html" target="_blank">Latin America </a>in the 1970s and 1980s, the Asociación Madres de Plaza de Mayo (Association of Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo) began its silent vigils on April 30, 1977, protesting against and demanding accountability for the disappearance of their children during the Argentine military dictatorship (1976–83; it is estimated that during this period the military disappeared between 15,000 and 30,000 persons). <br />
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Every Thursday afternoon, from 3:30 to 4:00 p.m., the Mothers would gather at the May Pyramid (Pirámide de Mayo) in the Plaza de Mayo in front of the presidential palace, wearing white head scarves, often carrying photographs of their missing children, and walk slowly in circles, demanding government accountability for their disappeared sons and daughters. <br />
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The founding members of the organization included Azucena Villaflor Devincenti (its first president); Berta Braverman; Haydée García Buelas; the four sisters María Adela Gard de Antokoletz, Julia Gard, María Mercedes Gard, Cándida Gard; Delicia González; Pepa Noia; Mirta Baravalle; Kety Neuhaus; Raquel Arcushin; and Señora De Caimi. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1880684381/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=10c255b6b3784daede12616828f18626" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1880684381&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1880684381" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1742207863/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1742207863&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=NMS5KGRB7T2D35EE" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1742207863&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1742207863" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The Mothers’ Association slowly grew, despite the detention and disappearance of some of its founding members, including its first president, Azucena Devincenti. By the early 1980s the Madres had grown to several thousand members and garnered the support of key international human rights groups, including Amnesty International and the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-nations.html" target="_blank">United Nations</a> Human Rights Commission. <br />
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Many consider that the Madres played an important role in delegitimizing the military dictatorship and helping to usher in the period of democratic rule from 1983. The Madres have continued their weekly vigils from 1977, demanding that the government account for their missing children and that the responsible parties be subjected to criminal prosecution, and refusing government offers of monetary compensation (reparación económica) if not accompanied by acknowledgment of responsibility. <br />
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In 1986 the group split into two main factions: the Mothers of the Founding Line (Linea Fundadora), led by Hebe de Bonafini, and the Madres; each currently maintains its own Web site. The group has received international accolades for advancing the cause of human rights, including the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought (1992), the United Nations Prize for Peace Education (1999), and the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights (2003). <br />
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The Mothers of the Founding Line has been criticized by some for its lack of internal democracy, cults of personality, and other factors. The Madres also spawned the formation of related groups, including the Association of Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo (Asociación Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo). Both factions of the Madres continue to demand government accountability for crimes perpetrated during the dirty war, and remain active in the field of human rights.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-67448622569696708712013-08-16T08:22:00.000-07:002019-01-06T15:33:04.406-08:00Yasir Arafat<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/firdawsi.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Yasir Arafat" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zbsaEnJi30g/Ug5Br4-zk7I/AAAAAAAAHso/FMvKK2iWdQo/s1600/Yasir-Arafat.jpg" title="Yasir Arafat" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yasir Arafat</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Yasir Arafat (full name, Muhammad Abdul Rauf Arafat al-Qudwa) was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo in 1929, although he claimed Jerusalem as his birthplace. Educated in Egypt, Arafat earned an engineering degree in 1956. While a student he met other Palestinians, especially <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00TP2OHLM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00TP2OHLM&linkId=ef0275fb4c3218c47cfbf4acdaea1a65" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Salah Khalaf</a> (1932–91) and Khalil al-Wazir (1935–88), who would become leaders in the nationalist movement. <br />
<br />
Although it is not certain that Arafat ever became a full-fledged member, he had contacts with the <a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/03/muslim-brotherhood.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Muslim Brotherhood</a>, and some of his associates did join the brotherhood. Arafat served as president of the Union of Palestinian Students and, later, the larger General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS) from 1952 to 1956.<br />
<br />
After graduation Arafat, along with several other key allies, moved to Kuwait, where in 1957 he cofounded, with Khalaf and al-Wazir, Fatah (Harakat Tahrir Filastin, or Palestine National Liberation Movement). In Arabic the acronym meant victory. Al-Asifah was its military arm. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Yasir-Arafat-Political-Barry-Rubin-ebook-dp-B000SBE5UC/dp/B000SBE5UC/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&me=&qid=&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=b4d0977196274624445c5ffc00e6a87f&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B000SBE5UC&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=B000SBE5UC" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Hamas-vs-Fatah-Struggle-Palestine-ebook-dp-B002BZDDN8/dp/B002BZDDN8/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&me=&qid=&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=fd4eabe7ae0240ffcb80c888ac7d995b&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B002BZDDN8&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=B002BZDDN8" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Wazir’s wife, Intissar, also took an active role in the group. Fatah’s first operation against Israel was an attack on a water pump station in 1965. Along with many other nationalist leaders in the mid-20th century, Arafat and Fatah members were influenced by the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/080147454X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=080147454X&linkId=c328631e084a6c734d9cf53573111cc7" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Algerian War</a>. <br />
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On the basis of that struggle they concluded that an independent Palestinian state could only be established through armed struggle with Israel. Arafat’s stated goal was the establishment of an independent Palestinian state in all of historic Palestine. He took the name Abu Ammar as his nom de guerre; al-Wazir became Abu Jihad; and Khalaf became Abu Iyad. The three leaders were known among Arabs as the abus, or fathers.<br />
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The Battle of Karameh in 1968 was a major turning point for Arafat and Fatah. In an attempt to crush Fatah, Israeli forces moved into Jordan and attacked the Fatah base at Karameh. Surprised when Fatah fighters fought back, the Israelis withdrew somewhat hastily. Young Palestinians and others who had been dispirited after the major defeats in the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/arab-israeli-war-1967.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">1967 Arab-Israeli War</a> then flocked to join Fatah in the struggle against Israel. <br />
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As a result Fatah became the largest and most powerful of the Palestinian factions and in 1969 Arafat became chairman of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/palestine-liberation-organization-plo.html" target="_blank">Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)</a>, the umbrella organization for a number of diverse Palestinian groups. He served in that capacity until 2004. Under Arafat’s leadership the PLO accommodated political factions on the Left and Right and refused to be aligned with any one Arab government.<br />
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The mounting power of the PLO posed an open challenge to the Jordanian monarchy. Consequently in September 1970 King Hussein’s forces attacked the PLO forces and Palestinian refugee camps, driving the PLO and Arafat out of Jordan. <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812974638/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0812974638&linkId=980c4d5b7a24662e53cd0c08ddeb16a5" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Black September</a>, the group that subsequently attacked and assassinated Jordanian officials and Israelis, took its name from the war in Jordan. Although Israel and others alleged that Black September and other organizations that engaged in terror attacks were controlled by Arafat, he denied the charges. <br />
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By 1974 Arafat ordered that PLO attacks be concentrated only in Israel and the Occupied Territories of the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1845193458/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1845193458&linkId=7a377031c5fce82af67e6b6bf38a4a47" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Gaza Strip</a> and the West Bank. In 1974 Arafat achieved international recognition and spoke before the General Assembly of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-nations.html" target="_blank">United Nations</a>. In subsequent years Arab states and most other countries, with the notable exceptions of Israel and the United States, recognized the PLO as “the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinians.”<br />
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After being ousted from Jordan, Arafat and the PLO moved the headquarters of their military, political, and social welfare activities to Lebanon. As the central Lebanese government imploded in the course of the civil war in the mid-1970s, the PLO became a state within a state. <br />
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The PLO infrastructure of schools, hospitals, businesses, and cultural institutions grew. Fearing major Israeli attacks into Lebanon, Arafat attempted to moderate PLO invasions into Israel along Lebanon’s southern borders, but as the PLO’s political and diplomatic efforts became more effective, Israel was determined to eliminate the dangers the PLO posed.<br />
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In June 1982 Israel launched a full-scale invasion into Lebanon with the purpose of destroying the PLO. Arafat and the PLO were quickly besieged in Beirut, where they held out against massive Israeli bombardments from the sea, land, and air. Negotiations by the international community resulted in the withdrawal of Arafat and the PLO leadership from Lebanon and their relocation to Tunis.<br />
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Israel attacked PLO headquarters in Tunis in 1985, but Arafat escaped; he also was almost killed in a plane crash in 1992. He and the PLO remained headquartered in Tunisia until 1993. Late in life Arafat married Suha Tawil, from a notable Palestinian Christian family, with whom he had one daughter. His brother Fatih Arafat, a medical doctor, headed the Palestinian Red Crescent for many years.<br />
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Arafat was a master at maneuvering among the Arab leaders, with whom he often had difficult relations, as well as among conflicting Palestinian factions, often playing one against the other. In 1988 the Palestine National Council (the equivalent of the Palestinian parliament) declared a Palestinian state with Arafat as the president. <br />
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By this time Arafat supported the so-called ministate solution, whereby the Palestinian state would include the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, all territory taken by Israel in the 1967 war and occupied by its military forces since that time.<br />
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Following secret talks between Israeli and PLO representatives in Norway, Arafat agreed to the 1993 Oslo Accords, which provided for the phased withdrawal of Israeli forces from parts of the Occupied Territories and PLO recognition of Israel. The accords were signed by Arafat and Israeli leaders <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/yitzhak-rabin.html" target="_blank">Yitzhak Rabin</a> and Shimon Peres in a much-publicized ceremony in Washington, D.C. Arafat shared the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize with Rabin and Peres.<br />
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Israel withdrew from portions of the Gaza Strip and Jericho, and Arafat returned to what Palestinians hoped would be the gradual creation of a fully independent state. Arafat was elected president of the new Palestinian National Authority (PNA) in 1993 and held the position until his death. Although he personally lived a simple life, Arafat was accused of allowing corruption among high-level Palestinian officials in the PNA and within Fatah. He retained a patriarchal hold on power.<br />
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As negotiations faltered, Arafat became increasingly isolated. At the 2000 Camp David negotiations Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak offered to return much of the Occupied Territories in return for an end to conflict, with no terms for the resettlement of the refugees. <br />
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Arafat rejected the offer but failed to make a counteroffer. Negotiations broke down completely, and many young Palestinians turned to the Islamic nationalist organization <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/hamas.html" target="_blank">Hamas</a>, which launched attacks—including suicide missions—within Israel and the Occupied Territories. <br />
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In 2000 and 2001 a <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/al-aqsa-intifada.html" target="_blank">new intifada (the al-Aqsa Intifada)</a>, or Palestinian uprising, broke out. Israel retaliated by reoccupying territory it had previously vacated. Israeli forces surrounded Arafat in his compound in Ramallah, and for the last two years of his life, he remained under what amounted to house arrest. <br />
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After some time of failing health he was moved to a hospital in Paris, where he died of uncertain causes in 2004. After Israel rejected Arafat’s wish to be buried in Jerusalem, his body was brought back to Ramallah for burial amid massive scenes of mourning among Palestinians. Although Arafat had failed to achieve an independent Palestinian state, he remained the leader who had made the existence of the Palestinian people and their quest for self-determination a matter of international concern.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-32028816629325061312013-08-16T07:46:00.000-07:002017-03-26T05:26:58.634-07:00Jean-Bertrand Aristide<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Jean-Bertrand Aristide</td></tr>
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A major and highly controversial figure in the modern history of Haiti, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was born in Douyon in southern Haiti on July 15, 1953. After being orphaned as an infant, he was raised by the Society of Saint Frances de Sales (the Salesians), a Roman Catholic religious order. <br />
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Educated at Salesian schools, including the Collège Notre-Dame, from which he graduated with honors in 1974, he continued his education at a number of religious schools in Europe, North America, the Middle East, and elsewhere, and at the University of Haiti, before his ordination as a Roman Catholic priest in 1982. <br />
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A gifted orator and organizer, he was especially influenced by liberation theology, a strand of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1567692826/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1567692826&linkId=364f09fdfbe37721c8890f6928a337fc" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Roman Catholicism</a> that became prominent from the 1960s and emphasized issues of social justice and political activism in alleviating the poverty and oppression of the poor and marginalized. In 1983 he was appointed to a parish in a Port-au-Prince slum, where he worked in a medical clinic and a halfway house for street children. <br />
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His activism and charisma attracted a large following and helped him build a social base for his subsequent political career. In 1986 popular uprisings led to the end of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/duvalier-dictatorship-haiti-1957-1986.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Duvalier dictatorship</a>, creating a political opening Aristide would soon exploit. His fiery oratory and social radicalism alienated the church hierarchy, leading to his expulsion from the Salesian order in 1988. <br />
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In 1990 in the first genuinely democratic elections in Haitian history, Aristide captured the presidency with two-thirds of the popular vote. He called his supporters “Lavalas,” which translates from the Haitian Creole as “cleansing flood” or “avalanche.” <br />
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His first tenure as president lasted less than eight months—from his inauguration on February 7, 1991, to the military coup that ousted him on September 30. Going into exile in Venezuela and the United States, he was returned to power following a United States military intervention in 1994. <br />
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During the same year he renounced his priesthood, marrying United States citizen Mildred Trouillot two years later. Constitutionally barred from running in the elections of December 1995, won by Raoul Cédras, in 2000 he won a second term. Political gridlock followed, and after a long period of political unrest, he was overthrown in a military coup in February 2004 and compelled to leave the country. <br />
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From exile in South Africa he proclaimed himself the legitimate president of Haiti. Denounced by his opponents as a self-serving agitator who advocates violence in the pursuit of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521545250/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0521545250&linkId=63b1579fa7c5c5847a6d04ade230d2cd" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">political power</a>, and revered by his many supporters as the embodiment of the aspirations of Haiti’s poor and oppressed, he remains a polarizing and controversial figure in the modern history of the Western Hemisphere’s poorest country.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-75349826172961381352013-08-16T07:12:00.001-07:002019-01-25T16:10:37.131-08:00Armenia and Azerbaijan<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/persecutions-of-church.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Armenia and Azerbaijan" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zjb4PSTyLaE/Ug4xxffXvvI/AAAAAAAAHsI/17KHxfWaKXc/s1600/Armenia-Azerbaijan.png" title="Armenia and Azerbaijan" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Armenia and Azerbaijan</td></tr>
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The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic were constituent members of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> until its collapse in 1991 when the former became the Republic of Armenia and the latter the Azerbaijani Republic.<br />
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Armenia, as a part of the Soviet Union, saw a considerable period of peace. However, the intelligentsia of the area had suffered greatly during the rule of Joseph Stalin, with tens of thousands of Armenians being executed or deported. The tensions eased with the death of Stalin and the emergence of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Khrushchev-Man-His-William-Taubman-ebook/dp/B007DAP6IQ/ref=as_li_ss_tl?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=ll1&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=5c2a58dcca2a842bd2e3bdea5658f5a8&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nikita Khrushchev</a>. <br />
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The next 25 years saw rising standards of living, with improvements in education and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00PWQ93M8/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=0704c6ff581de0a98ba2ff19e59133fe&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">health care</a>. Many of those exiled were also able to return. From the 1970s Western tourists started to visit Yerevan and some other parts of Armenia. With glasnost during the 1980s, the situation improved considerably.<br />
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Similarly, in Azerbaijan, there was suffering under Stalin, with some Azerbaijanis having supported the Germans during <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B077NR2XY9/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=7c18624364bb486b50c65112b68d391a&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">World War II</a>. This also led to mass executions and deportations. During the 1950s Azerbaijan was transformed with the enlarging of the oil industry. This continued throughout the 1960s and helped provide money for an increase in civil engineering projects and infrastructure.<br />
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In 1988 the governing council of Karabakh, officially the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, an enclave in Azerbaijan with 180,000 people, voted for unification with Armenia. Azerbaijanis, largely <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0873953908/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=d73c49bd1ec52c43a3d6af1d4a8716b9&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Shi’ite Muslims</a>, then attacked the predominantly Christian Armenians at the Azerbaijani town of Sumgait. <br />
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There was an upsurge in nationalist sentiment in both republics, with 250,000 Azerbaijanis living in Armenia and 500,000 Armenians in Azerbaijan at the start of the dispute. Many of these fled, and to make the situation worse still, in December 1998, an earthquake hit northern Armenia, destroying most of the town of Spitak, and also hitting Leninakan and Kirovakan, killing 25,000 and leaving 500,000 homeless.<br />
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With a rise in Azerbaijani nationalism in 1989, the local government started blockading <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00C2RDPBK/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=13bd007040de6d4fc2369e085c625546&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nagorno Karabakh</a> and Armenia. In January 1990 the border between Nakhichevan and Iranian Azerbaijan was torn down, and Armenians in Baku, Azerbaijan’s capital, were massacred. With weapons stolen from army bases and depots, Armenian and Azerbaijani militia were soon fighting each other. <br />
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The Soviet army was sent in and managed to fight its way into Baku, with hundreds dying. The Communists won the elections for the Azerbaijan Supreme Soviet (parliament) in 1990, and on August 30, 1991, Azerbaijan declared independence. Armenia followed suit on September 23. Full independence came about on December 25, with the formal dissolution of the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Failed-Empire-Soviet-Gorbachev-History-ebook-dp-B007X5UENI/dp/B007X5UENI/ref=as_li_ss_tl?_encoding=UTF8&me=&qid=&linkCode=ll1&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=d5f95a40691fe8ea598b95c2cd59bfbf&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a>.<br />
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In Azerbaijan, Ayaz Mutalibov, leader under the Communists, became president, remaining in that position until May 18, 1992, when Isa Gambarov took over as acting president. On June 16, 1992, Abulfez Elchibey became president, being replaced on June 24, 1993, by Heydar Aliyev, who was acting president until September 1, when he became president in his own right. The former Soviet politician Aliyev started to exploit the oil reserves of the country. He managed to reduce unemployment and establish closer relations with Turkey. <br />
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As he was dying, on October 15, 2003, his son, Ilham Aliyev, won the presidential election, for which he was the only candidate, and was sworn in as president 16 days later. In 1994 Azerbaijan became a member of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/north-atlantic-treaty-organization-nato.html" target="_blank">NATO</a> Partnership for Peace, allying itself closely with the West, and since 2001 has been a member of the Council of Europe. In 2004 Azerbaijan joined the NATO Individual Partnership Action Plan.<br />
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Nearly 99 percent of the 94 percent who voted in the 1991 referendum supported independence for Armenia. It became an independent country later that year but suffered greatly from a blockade by Azerbaijan. This was made worse when Turkey also blockaded the country in April 1993 after Armenian forces launched a military offensive against Azerbaijan. <br />
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As Azerbaijan sought closer ties with the West, Armenia sought more engagement with the Russian Federation. Through intermediaries from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), there has been an end to fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh, although there has been much political ferment with increasing unemployment and some 600,000 people leaving the country between 1992 and 1998. <br />
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Robert Kocharyan became acting president when Levon Ter-Petrosyan stepped down and has been president from April 9, 1998. During his time in office, there has been increasing dissatisfaction with the authoritarian way in which the country has been run, with dissidents being jailed and opposition parties banned. <br />
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In recent years, with economic problems plaguing the country, there has been the emergence of the Union of Right-Wing Forces that was founded in Yerevan on May 29, 2000. On March 21, 2002, at the Permanent Council meeting of the OSCE, Armenia once again reiterated its claims to Nagorno-Karabakh, with both governments now determined on a peaceful solution.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-10658374291984507502013-08-16T06:42:00.000-07:002018-11-22T15:21:02.232-08:00Arms Race/Atomic Weapons<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/eleanor-of-aquitaine.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Arms Race/Atomic Weapons" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LYaTrA_nyH0/Ug4rPrAytnI/AAAAAAAAHr0/XX32wpK3aEg/s1600/arms-race.jpg" title="Arms Race/Atomic Weapons" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arms Race/Atomic Weapons</td></tr>
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Atomic weapons and the arms race were inseparable from the inception of the former: Developments in physics in the 1930s led physicists to believe that nuclear fission could be used as a weapon, and when World War II began, scientists stopped publishing on the topic of fission in order to avoid sharing information with the enemy.<br />
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No one was yet sure what form a fissionbased weapon would take, but the Allied nations were concerned that Nazi Germany would develop it first. In the United States the Manhattan Project was supported by enormous resources beginning in 1942.<br />
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Research occurred at various sites across <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/09/vikings-in-north-america.html" target="_blank">North America</a> and was overseen and organized at Los Alamos, New Mexico, where the desert provided safe sites for weapons testing. Though British scientists participated, as did many European exiles, the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> was not included in the project.<br />
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Not until after Germany’s surrender did the Manhattan Project finish its work. The first test, code-named Trinity, was conducted on July 16, 1945. The first nuclear explosive, a nondeployable bomb nicknamed the Gadget, was a sphere of high explosive covered with surface detonators that directed the explosion inward, compressing a plutonium core in order to start a nuclear chain reaction that grew at an exponential rate. The Gadget exploded with a blast equal in force to about 18 thousand tons of TNT—tonnage of TNT became the standard measure of nuclear bombs thenceforth.<br />
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The test was a success. Aural and visual evidence of the explosion reached as far as 200 miles away. Almost immediately two bombs were prepared for the ongoing war in the Pacific: Fat Man, a plutonium bomb like the Gadget, was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9; three days earlier at Hiroshima, Little Boy, a uranium “gun-type” bomb that worked by shooting one piece of uranium into another to start the chain reaction, had been dropped.<br />
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Little Boy was the first gun-type nuclear bomb used, and while it seemed likely to work, it was at that time untested. Hundreds of thousands died at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, prompting a Japanese surrender a week later.<br />
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Future warfare would have to acknowledge the existence of nuclear weapons. Though the Soviets had been left out of the Manhattan Project and the United States was the only country with the capability to produce nuclear arms, the Soviet Union had been receiving information about the project throughout its duration thanks to its espionage efforts.<br />
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Development of Soviet nuclear weapons had to be conducted without the extraordinary brain trust of Los Alamos, but had the advantage of requiring less innovation. Penal mining provided uranium, and on August 29, 1949, the Soviets successfully detonated First Lightning, a 22 kiloton Fat Man–style fission bomb. Four years after the start of the “Atomic Age,” and years before U.S. military intelligence had predicted the Soviets would succeed, the nuclear arms race was under way.<br />
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In the aftermath of World War II the United States and the Soviet Union became the most significant and resourceful superpowers. New international alliances like the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact transpired along ideological lines as much as geographical ones.<br />
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The arms race was, on one level, simple one-upmanship: a competition through which tensions could be worked out, as they were in the Olympics and the space race. Though both the United States and the Soviet Union quickly acquired the necessary means to do significant and catastrophic damage to their opponents, escalation continued as the arms race drove them both.<br />
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The United States countered the Soviet acquisition of “the bomb” by developing the hydrogen bomb—also called the fusion bomb or the thermonuclear bomb. While the first generation of nuclear weapons used fission, the hydrogen bomb relied on nuclear fusion: the process of nuclei fusing into a larger nucleus and releasing energy as a by-product, the same process that fuels the Sun. <br />
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<tr><td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0375713948/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=e7c42540c0c3b01c832112d2820896a5&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0375713948&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=0375713948" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/One-Minute-Midnight-Kennedy-Khrushchev/dp/1400078911/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&pd_rd_i=1400078911&pd_rd_r=3f6f30e3-eeab-11e8-8068-c76aa33ad5df&pd_rd_w=h6xXj&pd_rd_wg=BPere&pf_rd_i=desktop-dp-sims&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_p=18bb0b78-4200-49b9-ac91-f141d61a1780&pf_rd_r=B3H0722DTFHNGD9YSXTH&pf_rd_s=desktop-dp-sims&pf_rd_t=40701&psc=1&refRID=B3H0722DTFHNGD9YSXTH&linkCode=li2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=d5f7893aabca0cc155144b403f9d5c99&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1400078911&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1400078911" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Looming-Tower-Al-Qaeda-Road-11/dp/1400030846/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&pd_rd_i=1400030846&pd_rd_r=3f6f30e3-eeab-11e8-8068-c76aa33ad5df&pd_rd_w=h6xXj&pd_rd_wg=BPere&pf_rd_i=desktop-dp-sims&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_p=18bb0b78-4200-49b9-ac91-f141d61a1780&pf_rd_r=B3H0722DTFHNGD9YSXTH&pf_rd_s=desktop-dp-sims&pf_rd_t=40701&psc=1&refRID=B3H0722DTFHNGD9YSXTH&linkCode=li2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=35c3d9552b19b7614605fd009580414f&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1400030846&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1400030846" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span></td></tr>
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On May 9, 1951, in the United States, Operation Greenhouse detonated a thermonuclear device codenamed George, with an explosive yield of 225 kilotons. Like the Gadget, George was a nondeployable device used to test the basic principles that would be involved in the design of its successors; a year later, Ivy Mike was detonated with a yield of 10.4 megatons (10,000 kilotons), and the hydrogen bomb officially became part of the United States nuclear arsenal. The Soviets kept pace, detonating a preliminary fusion device in the summer of 1953 and a fullscale thermonuclear bomb in 1954.<br />
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The destructive force of these new bombs was commonly measured in megatons, making the first atomic bombs seem almost trivial in comparison. A Fat Man–type bomb could eliminate a smaller city like Nagasaki; a hydrogen bomb could eliminate a major city and its infrastructure and produce considerably more fallout.<br />
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Secrecy was part of the world of nuclear weaponry from the start. In the cold war years, new policies regulated information relevant to the design of nuclear arms: The 1946 Atomic Energy Act put nuclear technology under civilian control and banned the divulging of information related to such to any foreign nation.<br />
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Eight years later a new act went substantially further: All nuclear technology was “born secret,” which is to say that it was automatically classified without need for evaluation. Nuclear technology was deemed to be a matter of national security. It is widely speculated that the born secret policy is unconstitutional, but the Supreme Court has yet to hear a case pertaining to it.<br />
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Throughout the 1950s much of the innovation of the arms race was concerned with methods of deployment. The B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress—strategic United States bomber jets designed to penetrate Soviet borders— and interceptor aircraft designed to intercept and eliminate bombers were early examples of such innovations.<br />
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Bomb deployment was also made more user-friendly, requiring fewer specialists and bringing the utility of nuclear weapons closer to that of conventional explosives, which required limited instruction on the part of the soldiers deploying them.<br />
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Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) allowed rival nations to deploy nuclear payloads without needing a pilot at all, and the United States proceeded to build missile installations throughout Europe, while the threat of Soviet missiles in Cuba sparked the Cuban missile crisis of 1962.<br />
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Some attention, of course, was paid to defense against nuclear attacks, not only the fallout shelters and cautionary films that became prevalent in the 1950s, but also antiballistic missiles to shoot down ICBMs before they struck their target, anti-aircraft artillery and fighter jets to intercept bombers, and increasingly sophisticated radar systems to detect incoming attacks.<br />
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These preventative measures could not keep up with the offensive capabilities of a nuclear arsenal, though, and the development of nuclear submarines, which could launch a missile from the ocean—far from tactical targets—provided each side in the cold war with second-strike capability: the ability to ensure a retaliatory attack in the event of the other side’s first strike.<br />
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Given the destructiveness of megaton bombs and the amount of fallout that would result from their wide-scale implementation, second-strike capability led to a state of what was called mutually assured destruction (MAD).<br />
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As a defense strategy, MAD calls for the development and stockpiling of weapons of mass destruction in order to force a situation in which it is infeasible for either side to attack, because of the certainty of devastating retaliation. What may have at first seemed counterintuitive was nevertheless a critical component of cold war thinking that led to the détente, or eased tensions, of the 1970s.<br />
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Meanwhile, as the United States and the Soviet Union remained dominant in the nuclear field, other nations developed programs of their own: Among the NATO allies, the United Kingdom and France both became nuclear powers by the end of 1960, while the People’s Republic of China followed suit in 1964, at a time when Sino-Soviet relations were at enough of an ebb that China was a potential threat to either the United States or the Soviet Union.<br />
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During détente, the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NNPT) was signed by by a number of states, though it was not until 1992 that France and the People’s Republic of China signed. The NNPT limited the spread of nuclear capability by permitting only those five states then possessing them—which also happened to be the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council—to own nuclear weapons.<br />
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It further permitted the use of nuclear power by other states, but only under conditions that would limit their ability to manufacture nuclear weapons. Any states not explicitly granted rights under this treaty would have to apply to the International Atomic Energy Agency, a regulatory branch of the United Nations, to pursue any nuclear technology activity.<br />
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The easing of tensions also led to armament control treaties in the late 1960s and early 1970s. SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), held in Helsinki, Finland, between the Soviet Union and the United States, restricted the production of strategic ballistic missile launchers and submarine-launched ballistic missiles, and further treaties limited nuclear testing and forbade nuclear weapons in space. Détente ended when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979. When <a href="https://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/ronald-reagan.html" target="_blank">Ronald Reagan</a> was elected president in 1980 he returned anti-Soviet rhetoric to pre-détente levels, calling for massive escalations in order to force the Soviet Union into economic collapse as a result of defense spending. <br />
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One of his initiatives threatened the balance of MAD: The Strategic Defense Initiative, nicknamed Star Wars, would employ a space-based system to deflect missiles en route to the United States, thus limiting the Soviet second-strike capability. Though the system was never fully developed or employed, aspects of it were adopted by every subsequent administration, even after the cold war ended.<br />
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The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START) further limited nuclear arms, and periodic treaties continue to reduce the number of nuclear warheads in operation. The arms race effectively ended when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.<br />
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Though no one possesses the resources of the cold war superpowers, the rest of the world has begun to catch up to the nuclear states: In the post– cold war years India, Pakistan, and North Korea have all tested nuclear devices (North Korea withdrew from the NNPT in 2003; India and Pakistan never signed), and more are sure to follow. The International Atomic Energy Agency estimates that, as of 2006, 40 nonnuclear countries possessed the capability to manufacture nuclear weapons if they desired to.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-17504705449436912492013-08-16T06:17:00.002-07:002016-11-29T20:54:53.214-08:00Asian Development Bank<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/persepolis-susa-and-ecbatana.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Asian Development Bank" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-s-CSC2qcE-k/Ug4ldkoQYCI/AAAAAAAAHrk/n9b8oRrBklo/s1600/adb.jpg" title="Asian Development Bank" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Asian Development Bank</td></tr>
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The Asian Development Bank (ADB), a nongovernmental organization headquartered in Manila, the Philippines, was founded to provide aid, funding, and various forms of <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/financial-marketing.html" target="_blank">financial</a> and technical support to countries in Asia and the Pacific. The ADB started operations in 1966 and initially represented a group of 31 states. As of 2006 it had grown to have 66 members. This included 47 states from inside the zone and 19 countries elsewhere.<br />
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The bank’s stated goal is to improve the lives of the peoples of the region by helping them develop economically and socially. This is a major task given the depths of poverty encountered in some regions. Many area peoples live on less than $2.00 per day. The bank has a specific commitment to helping less-developed and poorer Asian countries to advance economically. This help can take several forms and affect regional, subregional, and local projects and programs.<br />
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The goals of the ADB are varied and include developments to foster economic growth and projects to reduce poverty. The organization also attempts to assist in the improvement of conditions that affect women and children as well as to implement <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/growth-strategies.html" target="_blank">strategies</a> that encourage human resource development and to promote environmentally friendly strategies for growth.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1498517838/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=250cfe596b89694843f4b43fe24f25ba" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1498517838&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1498517838" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1594205493/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1594205493&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=YCGGVIWBUIFJZHOA" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1594205493&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1594205493" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The total lending volume is around $6 billion in the early 2000s, with technical assistance programs totalling $180 million a year. These financial programs can involve both public and private investments. In terms of economic development, the bank evaluates requests for help and then determines where its assistance is most appropriate. <br />
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It favors proposals that offer a combination of social and economic development. It hopes that at least 50 percent of the projects will produce social or environmental benefits. Its other priorities are geared to economic growth and development. The bank also attempts to match its lending with governmental contributions. <br />
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The ADB’s work encompasses many different activities and embraces many diverse areas. For example, the bank’s efforts affect agriculture and resources, finance, transport and communications, economic and social infrastructure, <a href="http://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2013/06/industrial-workers-of-world.html" target="_blank">industrial</a> investment, and mineral extraction projects. <br />
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The ADB receives numerous proposals from its members for particular projects, which it assesses to determine their relative merits. It analyses the viability, value for money, economic and social impact, technical realities, provisions for accounting oversight, and contract and bidding implementation as well as openness and overall development priorities. <br />
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After a thorough review and analysis—which can include review by outside agencies and consultants—worthy projects receive the bank’s approval, and a schedule for completion is determined that also details <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/performance-measurement.html" target="_blank">performance</a> guidelines and expectations.<br />
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The ADB is directed by a board of governors with one representative drawn from each member country. This board then elects a 12-member board of directors, with eight of the 12 coming from Asian-Pacific countries. The governors also elect a bank president, who acts as chairperson for the board of directors and whose term is five years, with the possibility of reelection. Traditionally the president has been a <a href="http://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2013/06/japanese-americans.html" target="_blank">Japanese</a>. <br />
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This choice reflects Japan’s heavy investment in the bank of approximately 13 percent of its shares, a figure matched only by United States investment. Countries that withdraw from the organization have their investment reimbursed.<br />
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In 2006 there were projects and feasibility studies in areas such as road development in Afghanistan, infrastructure and transport strategies for India, telecommunications investment in Cambodia, road improvements in the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/solomon.html" target="_blank">Solomon</a> Islands, water management programs in China, and regional efforts in energy-related areas.<br />
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In recent years the bank has developed anticorruption initiatives. As in related institutions such as the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/world-bank.html" target="_blank">World Bank</a>, corruption can work against the developmental interests of poor countries. In theory, all projects must undergo regular and intensive ADB audits, yet issues still remain as to the misuse or misappropriation of funds and the wasteful use of project money. There are also concerns that there have been projects approved that do not help the poor as they should.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-3084257770343119102013-08-16T05:22:00.000-07:002017-04-17T09:13:08.115-07:00Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)</td></tr>
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APEC is an organization that aims to promote free trade and economic cooperation throughout the Asia Pacific region. It was created in 1989 because of the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the establishment of regional economic blocs such as the European Union and the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/north-american-free-trade-agreement.html" target="_blank">North American Free Trade Agreement</a>. <br />
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APEC intends to improve living standards and education levels through <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415679494/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=catsome-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0415679494&linkId=da615af298aae722343af2e815340a69" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">sustainable economic growth</a> and to promote a sense of community and an appreciation of common values among Asia-Pacific countries. APEC’s membership includes 21 states, called “member economies.” <br />
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Of these, 12 are founding members—Australia, Brunei, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/federation-of-malaysia.html" target="_blank">Malaysia</a>, New Zealand, the Philippines, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/singapore.html" target="_blank">Singapore</a>, Thailand, and the United States— while Chile, China, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/hong-kong.html" target="_blank">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/basin-of-mexico.html" target="_blank">Mexico</a>, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/taiwan-republic-of-china.html" target="_blank">Taiwan</a>, and Vietnam joined at a later phase. APEC has no treaty obligations of its participants. <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521667976/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=f2949bd42c1dbfccee0634b34a624440" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0521667976&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0521667976" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812984803/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0812984803&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=M7AJDWZYW7TR5US2" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0812984803&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0812984803" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Decisions made within APEC are reached by consensus, and commitments are undertaken on a voluntary basis. APEC’s membership accounts for approximately 40 percent of the world’s population, approximately 56 percent of world GDP, and about 48 percent of world trade.<br />
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The first APEC Leaders’ Meeting occurred in 1993 and was organized by Bill Clinton in Blake Island, Washington. At its 1994 summit meeting in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00IFIVKFS/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=catsome-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00IFIVKFS&linkId=c1428fd8d7bb92b81d69389ef70ed67b" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Bogor, Indonesia</a>, APEC set an ambitious schedule to achieve free trade and raise the level of investments throughout the Asia-Pacific region by 2010 for members with developed economies and by 2020 for members with developing ones. <br />
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The <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/osaka.html" target="_blank">Osaka</a> Action Agenda was adopted a year later and was designed to implement APEC’s goals of liberalizing trade and investment, facilitating business activities, and promoting economic and technical cooperation. The procedure that all APEC’s decisions had to be taken by consensus and preferably passed unanimously limited the effectiveness of APEC. <br />
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In addition, although decisions can be taken in the absence of unanimity, they are not legally binding on member governments. In 1997 at the annual summit in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1786573334/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=catsome-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1786573334&linkId=91254eb0c91adf4014efa96020e80004" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Vancouver, Canada</a>, police forces violently clashed with demonstrators objecting to the presence of Indonesian president <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/haji-mohammad-suharto.html" target="_blank">Suharto</a>.<br />
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APEC is organized into numerous committees, special task commissions, working groups, and a business advisory council. The committees meet twice per year. The working groups are led by experts and consider specific issues, including energy, tourism, fishing, transportation, and telecommunications. <br />
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Every year one of the member economies hosts an economic leaders’ meeting, selected ministerial meetings, senior officials meetings, the APEC Business Advisory Council and the APEC Study Centres Consortium, and also fills the executive director position at the APEC secretariat. <br />
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The deputy executive director changes every year, as the position is given to a senior diplomat of the country who will be the APEC chair the following year. The APEC secretariat, established in 1993 and based in Singapore, provides coordination as well as technical and advisory support for all the organization’s initiatives.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-68304781953980356642013-08-14T09:06:00.001-07:002015-11-19T19:24:37.899-08:00Hafez al-Assad<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/tlatelolco-massacre-1968.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Hafez al-Assad" border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-qtUcoxdCsR4/UgukBbrMNPI/AAAAAAAAHk4/7IwVtNFb1o0/s1600/Hafez-al-Assad.jpg" title="Hafez al-Assad" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hafez al-Assad</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Hafez al-Assad was born in Qardaha in northern Syria to peasant parents. The Assad family was from the Alawite Muslim minority (a breakaway sect from Twelver Shi’ism), traditionally the poorest and least powerful group in Syria. Assad became a member of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/baath-party.html" target="_blank">Ba’ath socialist party</a>, as a teenager in 1946. Like many young Alawites, Assad received a free education in the Syrian military academy. <br />
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While at the academy, Hafez al-Assad became lifelong friends with Mustafa Tlass, who would become the Syrian defense minister in the Assad regime. Assad was trained in the Soviet Union, and although he supported pan-Arabism, he opposed the 1958 union with Egypt to create the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-arab-republic-uar.html" target="_blank">United Arab Republic (UAR)</a> because of Gamal Abdel Nasser’s dominance of it.<br />
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Syria dropped out of the UAR in 1961 with the support of the Ba’ath Party. As the fortunes of the Ba’ath Party rose, Assad was made head of the Syrian air force in 1964. The Ba’ath Party came to power in a bloodless coup in 1966. In a series of complex interparty rivalries Assad supported the military wing, versus Salah Jadid, who advocated a more radical socialist program. <br />
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<table align="center" style="width: 450px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center" width="225"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520069765/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520069765&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=YK7FLR4YAFQDD6G3" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0520069765&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0520069765" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></td> <td align="center" width="225"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1941393578/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1941393578&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=BQRDQ6W4KNKVIYY5" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1941393578&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1941393578" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></td> </tr>
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In the so-called corrective revolution of 1970, Assad defeated Jadid and seized power. In the 1971 referendum Assad was overwhelmingly elected president, a position he held until his death. Assad consolidated power by appointing close friends and fellow Alawites, who then owed their advancement directly to him to key positions within the military, intelligence services, and government offices.<br />
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The Assad regime, a one-party state with a cult of personality surrounding Assad, proved to be remarkably stable. The infrastructure, including transportation and <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/communication-and-promotion.html" target="_blank">communication</a> systems, was improved, and the government invested heavily in education, health care, and a huge dam on the Euphrates backed by Lake Assad to increase agricultural productivity and provide electricity for the country. <br />
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The regime also spent heavily on the military, the backbone of its support. The status of women was also improved. Syria experienced economic growth in the 1970s, but stagnation set in during the 1980s. Assad was closely allied with the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> and, after the collapse of the Soviet bloc, suffered a loss of military supplies as well as international support.<br />
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Although Assad continued publicly to advocate pan-Arabism, he increasingly adopted a Syrian nationalist stance in regional politics. During the Lebanese civil war Syria was asked by various Lebanese factions and Arab nations to intervene militarily in 1976. <br />
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However, after the civil war ended, Syrians troops remained in Lebanon, and Damascus continued to exercise considerable influence over Lebanese politics. In the face of mounting international pressure Syrian troops ultimately withdrew from Lebanon in 2005.<br />
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The Assad regime was secular and proclaimed that Syria was a “democratic, popular, socialist state.” The Muslim Brotherhood, dominated by Sunni Muslims, opposed Assad’s secular state and in the early 1980s mounted a bombing campaign of bus stations, military installations, and other targets with the aim of bringing down the regime. <br />
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Following a massive uprising in Hama, a brotherhood stronghold north of Damascus, Assad ordered Syrian troops to bombard the city and crush the rebellion in 1982. The brotherhood was defeated, but thousands were killed and much of the old city was destroyed.<br />
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Assad strongly supported the Palestinian cause for self-determination, although he frequently clashed with the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/palestine-liberation-organization-plo.html" target="_blank">Palestine Liberation Organization</a> under Yasir Arafat, whom Assad disliked. In negotiations with the United States and Israel, Assad was remarkably consistent. <br />
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He demanded the full return of the Golan Heights, Syrian territory lost to Israel in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War and not fully regained in the 1973 war, in exchange for a peace settlement. Owing in part to his long rivalry with <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/saddam-hussein.html" target="_blank">Saddam Hussein</a> in Iraq and support for the revolutionary regime in Iran, Assad supported the coalition invasion of Iraq in the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/first-gulf-war.html" target="_blank">First Gulf War</a> in 1991 but opposed the U.S. invasion in 2003.<br />
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Assad suffered a near-fatal heart attack in 1983, and, while he was still ill, his brother Rifaat attempted a coup. After Assad rallied loyal troops, the coup failed, and Rifaat was sent into exile and by 1988 removed from all official positions.<br />
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Assad’s son Basil was initially groomed for succession, but after he died in an automobile accident in 1994, another son, Bashar, an ophthalmologist by training, was picked to follow his father as president. Hafez al-Assad was a pragmatic, authoritarian, and consistent political leader. After Hafez al-Assad’s death in 2000 Bashar was elected president. <br />
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He followed his father’s general policies but loosened political controls and attempted to liberalize the system. He encouraged technological developments, particularly the Internet and computer technology. Bashar had to balance the desires of old Ba’ath hard-liners, however, who were loath to give up the privileges and power enjoyed under his father with political liberalization.<br />
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Owing in part to increased oil revenues, the Syrian economy grew in the 1990s. Like his father, Bashar demanded the return of the Golan Heights, and Israeli-Syrian negotiations failed to resolve the impasse. By 2006 Bashar faced mounting opposition from Israel and the United States for his support of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/hizbollah.html" target="_blank">Hizbollah</a>, the Islamist Lebanese movement that continued to confront Israel along its northern border. The Assad regime seemed threatened by possible military attack from both Israel and the United States. In September 2007 Israelis conducted an airraid on a possible Syrian nuclear cache.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-19450028642909569072013-08-14T07:50:00.004-07:002017-11-19T01:35:01.052-08:00Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/persian-myth.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="ASEAN logo" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-AXsaQUjXakY/UguWbYFNJ2I/AAAAAAAAHkc/lLZEVk223Sg/s1600/asean-logo.gif" title="ASEAN logo" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">ASEAN logo</td></tr>
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The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)— with Indonesia, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/federation-of-malaysia.html" target="_blank">Malaysia</a>, the Philippines, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/singapore.html" target="_blank">Singapore</a>, and Thailand as original members—was established on August 8, 1967. As outlined in the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1786570114/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1786570114&linkId=2d0b256c93acf002ac2634ffeef06d05" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Bangkok</a> declaration of ASEAN, it was formed to strive for the peace and prosperity of the region. <br />
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An important regional organization, ASEAN, whose member countries have a population of more than 500 million, strove for regional cooperation to benefit its member countries. It encompassed the rest of the countries of Southeast Asia over time with the admission of Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos and Myanmar (1997), and Cambodia (1999). The Meeting of the ASEAN Heads of State and Government is the top decision-making body of the ASEAN. <br />
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Every year, ASEAN Summit and ASEAN Ministerial meetings are held. The term of the secretary-general is five years, and he advises on and implements various ASEAN programs. The cooperation of member countries is through specialized bodies pertaining to education, energy, police, meteorology, and other areas.<br />
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Against the changing backdrop of the geopolitical situation, the ASEAN countries saw the necessity of regional cooperation on matters of common interest. The ASEAN was established during the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/vietnam-war.html" target="_blank">Vietnam War</a>, and the member countries were bound together by fear of North Vietnam and China. <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0801477360/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0801477360&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=IKUWMLPKCSL554J6" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0801477360&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0801477360" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0804771510/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0804771510&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=UGEZMZHNNDFYEQ7M" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0804771510&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0804771510" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The victory of communists in Indochina in the early 1970s and diminishing American involvement made the ASEAN states fearful of communism. The <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1743605145/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1743605145&linkId=266f0c0fe7bd5eb01a9e69d163c4ddcf" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Kuala Lumpur</a> declaration of November 22, 1971, called for the creation of a Zone of Peace, Freedom, and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) in Southeast Asia aimed at neutralization of the region. <br />
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The triumph of communism in the three Indochinese states of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam in 1975 spurred the ASEAN into action. Fearful of a militant and expanding communism, the ASEAN countries signed the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation at the First ASEAN Summit held at Bali, Indonesia, on February 24, 1976. <br />
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It called for renunciation of the use of force, cooperation among the nations in Southeast Asia, and noninterference in one another’s internal affairs. After the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> and the end of the cold war, ASEAN moved in a new direction to meet with the challenges of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/globalization.html" target="_blank">globalization</a>. The three Indochinese states became members.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://adf.ly/BhJFh" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="ASEAN map" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jLtYN0So3Nk/UguXPI4xScI/AAAAAAAAHko/HUaAYlzBHAw/s1600/asean-map.gif" title="ASEAN map" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">ASEAN map</td></tr>
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From the early 1990s ASEAN looked for increasing economic cooperation among member countries. At the Fourth ASEAN Summit held in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1743210019/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1743210019&linkId=9ce998cd91b99482154809a003537572" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Singapore</a> in January 1992 an agreement was signed for the creation of an ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) within 15 years. The 1995 Bangkok Summit passed a resolution on the Agenda for Greater Economic Integration. <br />
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The time frame of AFTA was reduced to 10 years. The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted in 1997, envisaged an ASEAN Economic Region. There would be closer economic integration along with reduction of poverty and removal of economic disparities. The Framework Agreement for the Integration of Priority Sectors and its Protocols of 1999 called for the creation of a single market and production base. <br />
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In 1994 the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established with non-ASEAN countries like the United States, Russia, China, India, and others to discuss security issues and take steps in confidence building. There was an agenda for an enhanced role of the ARF in matters of security dialogue and cooperation.<br />
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<tr><td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/9814722499/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=eae73679a7a8b177bbb6cc39b69ac5ce" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=9814722499&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li2&o=1&a=9814722499" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1107590736/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=eb511cefc61b995963add31ced114e95" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1107590736&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li2&o=1&a=1107590736" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1107569591/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=89349ee433125945b73c5014f602ce79" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1107569591&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li2&o=1&a=1107569591" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td></tr>
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Meetings on this topic were held in the Cambodian capital and in Potsdam, Germany, in 2004 and 2005 respectively. The December 2005 ASEAN Summit, held in Kuala Lumpur, noted with satisfaction progress toward a Free Trade Area, with such countries as Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/india.html" target="_blank">India</a>, and the Republic of Korea. <br />
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ASEAN cooperates with the East Asian nations of China, Japan, and the Republic of Korea, which were accorded the special status of ASEAN Plus Three. They expected to have a free-trade agreement by the year 2010. India enjoys a special standing with ASEAN. An ASEAN-India Partnership for Peace and Progress was signed at the Third ASEAN-India Summit in November 2004.<br />
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The ASEAN and its member countries have taken steps, through treaties, conventions, and communiqués, to prevent different types of organized crime with regional and international dimensions, such as terrorism, terrorist financing, money laundering, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000ETR9VU/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B000ETR9VU&linkId=2940e6d71ba23409ade04a2c74b5a6c6" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">human trafficking</a>, and drug smuggling. <br />
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On February 24, 1976, the ASEAN countries declared that they would cooperate with one another and with international organizations to check illegal trafficking of drugs. The ASEAN Vision 2020 resolved to tackle the problems of drug trafficking, trafficking of women, and other transnational crimes. <br />
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Through organizations like the ARF, Ministerial Meetings, the ASEAN Chiefs of Police (ASEANAPOL), the ASEAN Centre for Combating Transnational Crime (ACTC), the Senior Officials Meeting on Transnational Crime (SOMTC), and the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime (AMMTC), steps were taken to prevent various forms of crimes affecting Southeast Asia in particular and the world in general. The Vientiane Action Program of November 2004 contained measures to tackle the problem of terrorism.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-15056394293366723572013-08-14T07:29:00.001-07:002016-11-29T21:10:30.589-08:00Aswan Dam<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/petronius-roman-author.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Aswan Dam" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1K0a8rmHiS8/UguR2BmwVwI/AAAAAAAAHj0/6-eBvbhFtBA/s1600/aswan-dam.jpg" title="Aswan Dam" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Aswan Dam</td></tr>
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The Aswan Dam was the cornerstone of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/gamal-abdel-nasser-egyptian-president.html" target="_blank">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>’s program for Egyptian economic development. Nasser described the project as “more magnificent and seventeen times greater than the Pyramids.” The dam was to improve the living standard for Egyptians by increasing agricultural output and providing electricity for Egyptian villages and power for industrialization. <br />
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The dam increased reclaimed agricultural land by onethird and provided 10,000 million kilowatt hours of electricity. Nasser Lake, one of the world’s largest artificial lakes at about 300 miles long, was created as a result of the dam. <br />
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The dam was over 120 feet high and a mile wide and was one of the most extensive projects in the world at the time. However, the dam also had some unforeseen ecological impacts. Because it was no longer flushed by annual floodwater, Egyptian agricultural land increased in salinity. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/9811019347/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=c64bdf803c3e1c59fc2cd0175a4d0a64" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=9811019347&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=9811019347" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/142630840X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=142630840X&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=MOZXXC4PWYOP6C2B" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=142630840X&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=142630840X" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The decrease of Nile floodwater into the Mediterranean resulted in a decrease of plankton, organic carbons, and fish. Advocates of smaller, more cost-effective projects argued that the massive amounts of money expended in construction of the dam might have been better spent in more appropriate technology projects.<br />
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The dam provided Egyptians with a sense of pride, however, and from Nasser’s viewpoint was a project around which Egyptians could be rallied for other political and economic programs. Originally money and technology to build the dam was to come from the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/world-bank.html" target="_blank">World Bank</a> and Western nations, particularly the United States. <br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/pharaoh.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="building the aswan dam" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-tGfoDt5S6dA/UguSW2zNzHI/AAAAAAAAHj8/hlpwn-BgjaI/s1600/aswan-1.jpg" title="building the aswan dam" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">building the aswan dam</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
But after Nasser adopted a policy of neutralism in the cold war, recognized the People’s Republic of China, and signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia, John Foster Dulles, the U.S. secretary of state in the Eisenhower administration, concluded that Nasser was not a reliable ally. <br />
<br />
Consequently Dulles withdrew United States aid for the project and publicly criticized Egypt’s economic stability. Dulles hoped that the failure to secure economic aid for the dam would result in Nasser’s overthrow. On the contrary Nasser retaliated by nationalizing the Suez Canal, announcing that the income from the canal would be used to build the dam. The nationalization infuriated Great Britain and France and helped to precipitate the 1956 Arab-Israeli War.<br />
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Ultimately the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> provided the money and technicians to build the dam. The dam was completed in the early 1970s after Nasser’s death. But Soviet influence over Egypt was short-lived for President Anwar el-Sadat, Nasser’s successor, ousted the Soviets shortly after the dam’s completion and turned instead toward the West and the United States.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/pharisees.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Nasser Lake" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-EOcDdnZOEjc/UguTZPw5DBI/AAAAAAAAHkM/AgEN5Dqne4s/s1600/nasser-lake.jpg" title="Nasser Lake" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Nasser Lake</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-79168196690641785762013-08-14T03:49:00.000-07:002017-11-29T08:43:24.999-08:00Aung San Suu Kyi<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/philip-of-macedon.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Aung San Suu Kyi" border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ClRvU6DZx60/UgtfbkAS_TI/AAAAAAAAHjg/9ecC3mKJVk0/s1600/Aung-San-Suu-Kyi.jpg" title="Aung San Suu Kyi" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Aung San Suu Kyi</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Aung San Suu Kyi was born to diplomat Daw Khin Kyi and Burmese (Myanmar) national hero Bogyoke Aung San on June 19, 1945. She was educated in Yangon, New Delhi, Oxford, and London. In 1969 she worked in the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-nations.html" target="_blank">United Nations</a> Secretariat in New York and afterward in Bhutan. She was married to British academic Michael Aris in 1972, and the couple had two sons. In March 1988, Suu Kyi returned to Myanmar to take care of her ailing mother, and she became a prodemocracy political activist.<br />
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Suu Kyi was destined to take the leadership in a country under the military dominance since 1962 of General <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/ne-win-burmese-ruler.html" target="_blank">Ne Win</a>, who was also the leader of the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). Her status as daughter of Aung San and her sound knowledge about her country’s culture contributed to her immense popularity. <br />
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Ne Win resigned on July 23, 1988, but the military retained power and brutally crushed a popular uprising. The military junta then created the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) and changed its name to the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) in 1997. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0141041447/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0141041447&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=K2HPSGHSE5BUJGMQ" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0141041447&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0141041447" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0141039493/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0141039493&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=5LM7ZWGVZ2R6NOX3" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0141039493&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0141039493" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Suu Kyi and her associates established the National League for Democracy (NLD), which called for nonviolent protests and appealed to the United Nations to intervene on their behalf. Her status as a national leader made her position formidable. She adhered to her nonviolent ideals in spite of the brutality, intimidation, and slander directed against her by the SLORC.<br />
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Suu Kyi criticized the violation of human rights by the military junta, calling for free and fair elections. Her meetings throughout the country attracted many people and caused the junta to put her under house arrest and to reject her candidature for the forthcoming elections. Despite this, her party won the May 1990 elections with 82 percent of the legislative seats. <br />
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The international pressure forced the junta to release Suu Kyi in July 1995, but she was barred from leaving Yangon. In the same year her NLD delegates were expelled from the national convention, which was preparing a draft constitution. The convention itself was suspended in March 1996. <br />
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In September 2000, Suu Kyi and 92 NLD members were put under house arrest again. There was another secret meeting between Suu Kyi and the junta in 2002 that resulted in the release of NLD prisoners due to increasing criticism of the regime from many lands over the world. She was released from house arrest on May 6, 2002, and was permitted to travel in Myanmar. <br />
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But she was jailed again in 2003 and remained in jail in 2008. Her international standing remained high. The European Parliament awarded her the Sakharov prize for freedom of thought in July 1990. In October 1991 the Nobel Committee awarded her the Nobel Peace Prize, calling her “an outstanding example of the power of the powerless.” <br />
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She donated the $1.3 million prize money to set up a trust for the health and education for her people. She was also given the Nehru Peace Award in 1995 by the government of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/india.html" target="_blank">India</a>. Suu Kyi remained the undisputed leader of Myanmar for her ceaseless efforts to restore democracy and against the abuse of human rights.<br />
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In 2016, somehow she don't give any attention to Rohingya muslim minority ethnic cleansing. Maybe it just not the kind of human rights violation she used to criticized.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-71614090245159811162013-08-13T10:30:00.000-07:002017-12-03T05:06:04.657-08:00Baltic States (1991 – present)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/phoenician-colonies.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Baltic States" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-yAaDvy815kA/Ugpn4Amb2iI/AAAAAAAAHak/LQrUbA1Uaoo/s1600/baltic-states.gif" title="Baltic States" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Baltic States</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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In 1985, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/mikhail-gorbachev.html" target="_blank">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, the newly elected general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, introduced two concepts to his country and its satellite states that would fundamentally change the course of human history: glasnost and perestroika. <br />
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Glasnost, which literally means “openness,” allowed the citizens of the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> and its satellite states greater freedom of expression. Perestroika was about restructuring the Soviet economy, shifting from rigid, centralized state planning to a more flexible approach to combat chronic shortages of consumer goods. <br />
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These two reforms, coupled with struggles between moderate and hard-line Communists within the Politburo, the economic strain of the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B002JPGQ3O/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B002JPGQ3O&linkId=3066ccd378b656388a47c5998349d341" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">war in Afghanistan</a>, the renewal of the arms race with the West, and the revolutions that swept through the satellite states in 1989, furthered the calls for secession from the Soviet Union by the three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.<br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
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<td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0230019412/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0230019412&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=ZEQTEBHOD3IV4UWH" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0230019412&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0230019412" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1741795818/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1741795818&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=67GTH6GQJO3UBLDY" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1741795818&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1741795818" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td>
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</tbody></table>
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The desire for independence from the Soviet Union had deep roots, stretching back to their annexation in 1940 per the terms of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, signed in August 1939 by <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300219784/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0300219784&linkId=f00c1146d56cc41c6b4a29abf4153882" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Joseph Stalin</a> and Adolf Hitler, provided for the three Baltic states and the eastern third of Poland to fall under a Soviet sphere of influence in exchange for the Soviet Union’s neutrality upon the German invasion of western Poland. <br />
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Following the annexations, tens of thousands of Balts were deported from their homelands by Soviet authorities and shipped eastward, a process repeated in the late 1940s. The aim of the wide-sweeping deportations was to remove those most likely to resist Soviet occupation and communism.<br />
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From the early 1950s until the mid-1980s, protests against Soviet control were limited and brutally crushed by government forces. However the freedom promised by <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/074252678X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=074252678X&linkId=772aa779038a3d6c70a94150b625cf01" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Gorbachev’s reforms</a> led, by 1987, to popular demonstrations in major cities such as Tallinn (Estonia), Riga (Latvia), and Vilnius (Lithuania) against Soviet rule. In 1988, these spurred the establishment of popular nationalist organizations in Estonia (April), Lithuania (June), and Latvia (October).<br />
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The first official cracks in the forced relationship between the Baltic states and the Soviet Union began to appear in late 1988 when the Estonian Supreme Soviet declared Estonia’s sovereignty. This proclamation was quickly followed by similar declarations by its counterparts in Lithuania and Latvia in May 1989. On August 23, 1989, the Balts demanded independence from Soviet control by forming a continuous human chain of more than 2 million people, 370 miles long, that linked their capital cities. <br />
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When the Soviet Union responded with force to demonstrations in Vilnius and Riga in January 1991, the response of Baltic citizens was swift and decisive. Between February and March of 1991 all three states held referenda regarding independence. In contrast, referenda held by the Soviets testing the willingness to continue the union were predominantly boycotted by the Baltic population. <br />
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In August 1991, all three Baltic states officially declared their independence, received external recognition of such, and were admitted by the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802145299/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0802145299&linkId=65533fae3d6bae62e374927394182336" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">United Nations</a> as independent nations. On September 6, 1991, in the aftermath of the failed hardline coup attempt to replace Gorbachev in August, the Soviet Union recognized the three Baltic states.<br />
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Having successfully won their independence, each of the Baltic states then had multiple issues to address: politically, the formation of new governments, the foundation of political parties, and the drafting of constitutions; economically, restoring private property, releasing state control of industrial development and collectivization of farms, transitioning to an independent currency, and securing a solid and independent economic base; and socially, restructuring the school system and curriculum, restoring traditional institutions, including churches, and dealing with issues of citizenship and ethnicity. The Baltic states were more difficult given that they were literally controlled by <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0670026190/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0670026190&linkId=46fb7860ec1e49ca9ad07226d4d0b9a3" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Moscow</a>. They lacked independent institutions from which they could begin to build.<br />
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The Estonians officially adopted their new constitution by referendum on June 28, 1992. This was soon followed by elections for their parliament, the Riigikogu, in September, which brought a center-right coalition into power, led by the Fatherland Party (Isamaa). Elections for Lithuania’s parliament, the Seimas, occurred in October 1992 and resulted in a majority victory for the Lithuanian Democrat Labor Party. <br />
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The same month a new Lithuanian constitution, establishing a democratic republic, was adopted by popular referendum and endorsed by the newly elected parliament. Latvians held the first national elections for their parliament, the Saeima, in June of 1993, leading to the victory of the centrist party, Latvia’s Way (Latvijas Cels), at the polls.<br />
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The question of citizenship for non-Balts continued to be a major point of contention. In 1989 Lithuania had the smallest percentage of Russians among its population at 9.4 percent; therefore it chose a more inclusive approach to citizenship. However Latvia’s Russian minority was 34 percent of its overall population and Estonia’s Russian population made up approximately 30 percent. <br />
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In November 1991 Estonia was the first Baltic state to establish specific divisions between citizens, as native Estonians and predominantly Russian immigrants who would have to undergo a process of naturalization before they were granted citizenship. Initially, Latvia passed a strict citizenship bill in 1994, establishing a quota of 2,000 maximum naturalizations per year. This quota provision was eliminated.<br />
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Following freedom from Soviet rule, economic productivity fell dramatically across Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The new governments struggled to transition from state-controlled, command economies to market capitalism. Industrial production in Estonia fell by more than 50 percent in 1992, whereas in Latvia it fell by 33 percent, and in Lithuania by about 40 percent. The vast majority of workers maintained employment, indicating that worker productivity fell sharply as well.<br />
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Given the backward nature of factories, transportation systems, and communication networks due to the impoverished Soviet system as a whole, the Baltic nations grappled with reforming their economies and developing markets in the West. <br />
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They were also at a disadvantage in terms of learning basic capitalist business techniques such as marketing, packaging, and design. The Balts needed to retool not only their machinery but their economic mentality as well. Another psychological barrier to embracing capitalism was the long-lasting legacy of bitterness toward those who profited and operated on the black market under the communist system. <br />
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Often those who privatized larger businesses first were the Soviet managers of these plants and factories, continuing their pattern of economic exploitation. Privatization on the smaller scale occurred with less corruption.<br />
<br />
Within the agricultural sector, the transition from collectivized farms to privatization was extremely difficult. Two additional negative elements were the lack of an adequate supply of farm machinery and the problems generated by a firm commitment to returning lands to those from whom they were taken during the process of collectivization. <br />
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In addition, during 1992 a severe drought wreaked havoc on both food production and the stability of the livestock population. Disaster was averted only through the infusion of large amounts of Western aid. But the prices of native agricultural products rose sharply, resulting in stronger competition with food imports from the West. <br />
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This led farmers to lobby their governments to institute protective tariffs for native-grown products, a tactic that would then harm the drive to increase exports of Baltic products to Western markets, which was connected to their desire to be integrated into Western economic entities.<br />
<br />
Estonia was the first of the three Baltic States to reestablish an independent currency, the kroon, in June of 1992, and it led the charge for economic reform. Latvia soon followed with limited circulation of the lat in March of 1993, and Lithuania unveiled the litas in June of 1993. Although an important symbolic step on the path to complete autonomy, the emergence of independent currencies also emphasized some of the weaknesses within the economic structure. <br />
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Another source of instability was the lack of hard currency held by the respective governments. This weakness was remedied in part by the restoration of gold reserves by Western nations; these reserves had been sent west in 1940 as the Soviet occupation had begun. By 1993 Estonia and Lithuania gained membership in the Council of Europe; Latvia soon followed suit in 1995. By late 1995 all three had applied to join the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0813349842/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0813349842&linkId=6dfd9b7b0c5bbdd31f8006491cb53f22" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">European Union</a>; by March 2004 all three had officially joined.<br />
<br />
Another important means of securing full independence from the Soviet Union was the development of national militaries and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Baltic soil. These national militaries began as all-volunteer forces and were hampered by a lack of well-trained Balts, given that few Balts had wanted to become officers in the Soviet military. <br />
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In addition, during the transition period, government funds for training and equipping soldiers and for securing weaponry were scarce. Russian forces withdrew from Lithuania in August 1993; in August 1994 they withdrew from both Latvia and Estonia. All three Baltic states joined <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/north-atlantic-treaty-organization-nato.html" target="_blank">NATO</a> in 2004.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-28976202650835661022013-08-06T12:50:00.004-07:002017-12-07T12:47:59.049-08:00Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/pompeii-and-herculaneum.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference)" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DmyqAzGslEE/UgFNeQ6BOwI/AAAAAAAAHZ8/93FrE77Ut5o/s1600/Bandung-Conference.jpg" title="Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference)" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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The Bandung Conference, or Asian-African Conference, attended by 29 primarily newly independent nations, was held in 1955. The Indonesian leader <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/ahmed-sukarno.html" target="_blank">Ahmed Sukarno</a> hosted the conference of so-called Third World nations, most of which had become independent after <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1465436022/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1465436022&linkId=be4b7c764d389affdb7bf83558760cb6" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">World War II</a> and were generally poor, agricultural, and economically underdeveloped. They represented over half the world’s population.<br />
<br />
India’s leader <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/jawaharlal-nehru.html" target="_blank">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> played a key role in the conference that adopted his principles of opposing imperialism and focusing on the development of local economies rather than reliance on either the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B071F5H9ZR/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B071F5H9ZR&linkId=3cd6a089dac879debaad5b862efb91ec" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Western world</a> led by the United States or the Soviet bloc dominated by the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a>. Participants of the conference also raised issues of race, religion, and world peace. Most were, however, authoritarian in their political orientations.<br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B003HIX23O/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=b3406f7b03281ebc7c9d0eb5247328ba" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B003HIX23O&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=B003HIX23O" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B007MUIX0U/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B007MUIX0U&linkCode=as2&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=XU7PRAAUWEMW5TNE" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B007MUIX0U&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=as2&o=1&a=B007MUIX0U" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
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The Chinese prime minister, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/zhou-enlai-chou-en-lai.html" target="_blank">Zhou Enlai</a> (Chou En-lai), was another key spokesperson at the conference. Aware of the different political and economic approaches of the participants, Zhou wisely did not push an aggressive communist program and succeeded in establishing ties with other Asian and African leaders. Other leaders at the conference included <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/kwame-nkrumah.html" target="_blank">Kwame Nkrumah</a>, prime minister of the Gold Coast (Ghana); <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/ho-chi-minh-vietnamese-communist-leader.html" target="_blank">Ho Chi Minh</a>, the North Vietnamese prime minister; and President <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/gamal-abdel-nasser-egyptian-president.html" target="_blank">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> of Egypt. <br />
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The nations of North Africa also attended and condemned French imperialism. Nasser spoke about the role of Pan-Arabism and Pan-Africanism as well as the cause of Palestinian self-determination. Nasser, Nehru, and <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/marshal-tito-josip-broz.html" target="_blank">President Tito</a> of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/breakup-and-war-in-yugoslavia.html" target="_blank">Yugoslavia</a> subsequently became personal friends and exchanged state visits with one another.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/pompey.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="gedung merdeka" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rUKkREZaAmw/UgFRtYrpkGI/AAAAAAAAHaM/35BGAmaiIYU/s1600/Gedung-Merdeka.jpg" title="gedung merdeka" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">gedung merdeka in Bandung</td></tr>
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Many of the participants of the Bandung Conference became leaders of the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00JQFBUAE/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00JQFBUAE&linkId=9a08c6f4a2c72dd231b5f8632597fd35" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nonaligned Movement</a> in the early 1960s. The Nonaligned Movement sought to steer a middle or neutral course between the United States and the Soviet Union in the cold war. <br />
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Neither superpower endorsed the Nonaligned Movement, although the United States tended to be more hostile to the neutralism of nations seeking to maximize their own benefits rather than adopting policies that mirrored that of either superpower. Many leaders of African and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00D423FUI/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00D423FUI&linkId=39670f153efd16e5e23e6d767f67db8e" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Asian nations</a> attended a conference in both Bandung and Jakarta marking the 50th anniversary of the conference in 2005.<br />
<script src="//z-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/onejs?MarketPlace=US&adInstanceId=24321e39-210c-412f-902a-448b2112d7ca"></script>Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-64214355432868899762013-08-06T11:22:00.000-07:002017-12-28T09:55:55.832-08:00Hastings Banda<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/oda-nobunaga-japanese-general.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Hastings Banda" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-KxETzidZGug/WLqYfip_BcI/AAAAAAAAeCg/GpBY4Y_QJ2IPSVTfD7tzfPTREJ1EA-fOwCLcB/s1600/hasting-banda.jpg" title="Hastings Banda" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hastings Banda</td></tr>
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Dr. Hastings Banda was a physician and prime minister, founding president, and former dictator of the African country of Malawi. After leading the country’s independence movement against the British, Banda became prime minister in 1963. <br />
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An authoritarian ruler, Banda became president in 1966 and president for life in 1971. In 1994 Banda authorized democratic elections. He was defeated. Banda died in a South African hospital in 1997; he was rumored to have been 101 years old.<br />
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The name “Malawi” was given to the country formerly named Nyasaland by Dr. Banda. Having read a French map that called the dominating lake of the country “Lake Maravi,” Banda decided he liked the sound and appearance of the name and chose a similar name.<br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1784770140/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=7d8134e814fb7f254abcb607dbb8beb3" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1784770140&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1784770140" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/085721375X/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=321092506eb9649b923f010534656da5" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=085721375X&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=085721375X" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Because of tribal migrations, several tribes make Malawi their home. The Tumbuka from the Congo and the Chewa from Zambia moved into Malawi during the 14th through the 16th centuries and remain there today. The Bantu peoples flourished in Malawi during the 18th century and the Yao moved into southern Malawi in the 19th century. <br />
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It is thought that the Yao used firearms taken from Arabian traders to capture weaker tribes for the growing slave trade. Although slave trading had existed in Africa for centuries, the international transatlantic slave trade drastically increased the practice.<br />
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The first Europeans in Malawi were Portuguese explorers, but the most famous explorer was the British <a href="http://amzn.to/2moYHOy" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Dr. David Livingstone</a> in 1846. Dr. Livingstone would return to Malawi twice more to help establish trade routes and mission sites before his death in 1873. Livingstone’s Malawian legacy was the increased trade and missionary presence in Malawi, which eventually became a trade center. <br />
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During the late 19th century, Malawi became a British protectorate. During the next few decades, the British government officials in Malawi battled slave traders, oversaw the growth of European settlers, constructed a postal system, and built a railway line.<br />
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Local Malawian peoples were dissatisfied under the British colonial system and in 1915, the Reverend John Chilembwe led a violent uprising against European settlers living on formerly Malawian farmlands. By 1944 the growing elite consisting of Europeans, Americans, and Africans organized the Nyasaland African Congress in order to protect their new holdings. Britain joined the Central African Federation, a white-dominated organization, in 1953.<br />
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When he was young, Hastings Banda left Malawi for <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/rhodesiazimbabwe-independence-movements.html" target="_blank">Rhodesia</a> and <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/07/dutch-in-south-africa.html" target="_blank">South Africa</a>. The son of peasants, Banda went to work in the South African gold mines and by 1925 had enough money to head to America for college. He studied on a scholarship at the Wilberforce Institute in Ohio and then went to the University of Chicago.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/06/world-war-ii.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Hastings Banda and Presiden Tanzania, Julius Nyerere" border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-TWtSwHZGXRQ/WLqdwRYjbNI/AAAAAAAAeCw/mlML9Z2ieRMJZVLMMzd-gBWSiG1hxhmtgCLcB/s1600/banda-nyerere.jpg" title="Hastings Banda and Presiden Tanzania, Julius Nyerere" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hastings Banda and Presiden Tanzania, Julius Nyerere</td></tr>
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After graduation, Banda went to Meharry Medical College in Nashville, Tennessee. Although he graduated in 1937, Banda was required to earn a second medical degree in order to practice medicine in the British Empire. In 1941 he graduated from the School of Medicine of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of the University of Edinburgh.<br />
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After <a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/06/world-war-ii.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">World War II</a>, Banda established his medical practice in Scotland and London. His office soon became a meeting place for exiled African leaders. However, in 1953 Dr. Banda chose to return to Africa, establishing a medical practice in <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/ghana-mali-and-songhai.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Ghana</a>. <br />
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By 1958, Banda had returned to Malawi to campaign against the Central African Federation. In 1959 he spent time in prison for his political activities but was released in April 1960. In 1963, Banda and his Malawi Congress Party won the elections in a landslide victory. Dr. Hastings Banda became the prime minister on February 1, 1963.<br />
<script src="//z-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/onejs?MarketPlace=US&adInstanceId=24321e39-210c-412f-902a-448b2112d7ca"></script><br />
The British still controlled all of Malawi’s financial, security, and judicial systems. In May 1963 a new constitution took effect, winning Malawi its independence from Britain. In 1966 Malawi became a republic with Banda as its president. Banda became increasingly autocratic, making himself president for life in 1971. Opponents were jailed, sent into exile, or killed. <br />
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The foreign press was barred from entering the country. In addition to gaining almost total control of Malawi’s economics, Banda also made economic trade ties with <a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/06/union-of-south-africa.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">South Africa</a>. During apartheid in South Africa, Malawi was the country’s only African public trade partner.<br />
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Following rioting and the suspension of Western aid in 1992, Banda had no choice but to abandon the idea of one-party rule and even his life presidency in 1993. Open democratic elections were held in 1994, and Bakili Muluzi easily defeated Banda. Calculations report Banda accumulated over $320 million in personal assets during his rule. Another calculation reports that during his rule, over 250,000 people went missing or were murdered in connection with the government.Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-79067751165947122562013-08-06T09:47:00.002-07:002017-12-28T10:03:16.878-08:00People’s Republic of Bangladesh<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://adf.ly/CO2MG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="People’s Republic of Bangladesh" border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-tMtj6SD4IQQ/UgEjHd0980I/AAAAAAAAHZM/63pHtmrSAxk/s1600/Bangladesh-flag.gif" title="People’s Republic of Bangladesh" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">People’s Republic of Bangladesh</td></tr>
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Bangladesh—officially known as the People’s Republic of Bangladesh—is a country of 55,598 square miles in South Asia. Bangladesh translates as the “Country of Bengal.” Geographically Bangladesh shares a small border with Myanmar in the southeast, and the rest is surrounded by <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/india.html" target="_blank">India</a> except for the Bay of Bengal to the south. Bangladesh, whose capital is Dhaka, had an estimated 2005 population of over 141,800,000. <br />
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Officially the government is a parliamentary republic that declared independence from <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/pakistan-peoples-party.html" target="_blank">Pakistan</a> on March 26, 1971. (The total population of Bangladesh recently ranked eighth in the world but the land area 94th. Hence the population density ranks near the top of all countries in the world. Its climate is marked by frequent monsoons and cyclones.)<br />
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The partition of India in 1947 resulted in the division of Bengal according to religion. The western section of Bengal went to India and the eastern to Pakistan as a province that would become East Pakistan. During the 1960s, East Pakistan began to push for autonomy. A 1970 cyclone, according to many experts, may have acted as a tipping point in the push for an independent East Pakistan. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521713773/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=natureplant-20&linkId=19b668f6038ee4c4c950e2058977e149" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0521713773&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=natureplant-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=natureplant-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0521713773" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674728645/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=natureplant-20&linkId=f1c179ccc573919ec9b00a14ebafc30f" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0674728645&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=natureplant-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=natureplant-20&l=li3&o=1&a=0674728645" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Many charged that the central government responded poorly to the disaster. Unrest spread when the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/awami-league.html" target="_blank">Awami League</a> and <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/sheikh-mujibur-rahman.html" target="_blank">Sheikh Mujibur Rahman</a> won a majority in parliamentary elections but were not permitted to take office. These events led to the Bengali Liberation War that lasted for nine months. Support from Indian armed forces in December of 1971 led to independence and the establishment of Bangladesh.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://adf.ly/CO2G7" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bangladesh map" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-xJQeK31_aec/UgEoabb8iBI/AAAAAAAAHZc/Zg7DitJE3eM/s1600/bangladesh-map.jpg" title="Bangladesh map" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bangladesh map</td></tr>
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Politically Bangladesh has two major parties—the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and the Bangladesh Awami League. The BNP gains support from a number of radical Islamic parties including Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and Islami Oikya Jot. The rivalry between the BNP and the Awami League has often led to protests and violence. <br />
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Students are quite active in politics and reflect the historical legacy of liberation politics. In February of 2005 two Islamic parties— Jagrata Muslim Janata Bangladesh (JMJB) and Jama’atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB)—were banned after a series of terrorist attacks and bombings. <br />
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Bangladesh is located on the Ganges Delta. Most of Bangladesh is no more than 10 meters above sea level. Therefore some scientists suggest that a rise of the water only one meter above sea level would flood approximately 10 percent of the land in the country. The country is underdeveloped and overpopulated, with recent per capita income of only approximately $440. <br />
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<a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/world-bank.html" target="_blank">World Bank</a> reports, however, have praised Bangladesh for progress in literacy, gains in education, and the reduction of population growth. Between 1990 and 1996 the economy grew at an annual rate of 5 percent. Its economic development is stymied by cyclones and <a href="http://watersome.blogspot.com/2012/09/floods-and-flood-control.html" target="_blank">floods</a>, inefficient state enterprises, lack of power as well as corruption, and a rapidly growing population. Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2570648806670504762.post-36984481279743463122013-08-05T14:24:00.001-07:002018-01-08T07:21:50.832-08:00Bay of Pigs<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/songhai-empire.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bay of Pigs invasion" border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Zr_i_yZzusA/UgAWGGezthI/AAAAAAAAHYs/q-lbtdCZQnY/s1600/Bay-Pigs.jpg" title="Bay of Pigs invasion" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bay of Pigs invasion</td></tr>
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In April 1961 putting into effect a plan initially formulated by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) under the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, U.S. President John F. Kennedy authorized the Bay of Pigs invasion to topple Cuban revolutionary <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/fidel-castro.html" target="_blank">Fidel Castro</a>. <br />
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The plan was for a U.S.-trained and equipped force of Cuban exiles to invade Playa Girón in the Bahía de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) on the south coast and spark a popular uprising against Fidel Castro, which would overthrow his regime and end Cuba’s Communist experiment. <br />
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Ill-conceived from its inception, and plagued by mishaps and missteps, the invasion failed, becoming a major foreign policy embarrassment for <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/john-f-kennedy.html" target="_blank">John F. Kennedy</a> and solidifying popular support for Castro within Cuba. A few months later, Cuban revolutionary leader <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/ernesto-che-guevara.html" target="_blank">Che Guevara</a> thanked a Kennedy aide for the invasion, which Guevara claimed “enabled [us] to consolidate” the revolution and “transformed [us] from an aggrieved little country to an equal.” <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1565844947/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=48659c6f5e3e9d691d69ea8b1b528e06" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1565844947&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1565844947" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1942411316/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=theconthist-20&linkId=b7ec269bacbe994d1f1c9d1a54127fec" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1942411316&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=theconthist-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=theconthist-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1942411316" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The Bay of Pigs fiasco also had major repercussions for the cold war, helping to precipitate the <a href="http://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2013/06/cuban-missile-crisis.html" target="_blank">Cuban missile crisis</a>, convincing the Kremlin that John F. Kennedy was weak and indecisive, and steeling Kennedy’s resolve to stand up to the perceived menace of global communism.<br />
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Operational planning for the invasion began in March 1960, headed by Vice President <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/richard-nixon.html" target="_blank">Richard Nixon</a>. This was in the wake of the successful CIA sponsored incursions into <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/contemporary-iran.html" target="_blank">Iran</a> (1953) and Guatemala (1954), which resulted in the installation of governments friendly to the United States. <br />
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The CIA secretly recruited a Cuban exile force of some 1,000 men, called Brigade 2506, which underwent training in south <a href="http://identifyfish.blogspot.com/2010/11/florida-largemouth-bass-micropterus.html" target="_blank">Florida</a> and Guatemala. The original landing site near Trinidad, Cuba, was later changed to the Bay of Pigs. Operations began on April 15 with a failed effort to destroy the Cuban Revolutionary Air Force. <br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/louis-xi.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="captured united states soldier" border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-dJ7OOv_6Ras/UgAWycc2deI/AAAAAAAAHY0/00CWJPGhfTs/s1600/bay-of.jpg" title="captured united states soldier" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">captured united states soldier</td></tr>
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Two days later, four privately chartered ships transported 1,511 Cuban exiles to the Bay of Pigs, accompanied by CIA-owned landing crafts carrying supplies. Fighting was fierce and lasted for four days (April 17–21). Casualties are estimated at 2,000 to 5,000 Cubans and 200–300 invading exiles. John F. Kennedy refused to send in air support or <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0425154548/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0425154548&linkId=78108d8b312de1076bd46a1e6c881a86" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">the marines</a>, fearing the consequences of clear evidence of direct United States involvement. <br />
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The Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces soon killed or captured most of the invading force. Soon afterward, 1,209 captive exiles were put on trial. Around 20 were executed or otherwise killed, the remainder being released within two years in exchange for $53 million in medicine and food.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/marie-therese-of-austria.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="victorius cuban army" border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-qGpwk-Ro-AM/UgAXaSxm-YI/AAAAAAAAHY8/w6_RCv1CJRY/s1600/Bay-igs.jpg" title="victorius cuban army" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">victorius cuban army</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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The botched invasion was a major blow to the Kennedy administration and gave a major boost to Castro at home and abroad. Kennedy’s vacillating leadership during the Bay of Pigs prompted Soviet Premier <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0393324842/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=theconthist-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0393324842&linkId=08c8bb41b453c691c8c0dc38801f62ef" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nikita Khrushchev</a> to challenge the U.S. administration more directly by placing nuclear-armed missiles in Cuba, leading to the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962. <br />
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Until his assassination in November 1963, John F. Kennedy endeavored to demonstrate his strength in confronting the <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/dissolution-of-soviet-union.html" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> and its allies in Europe, Asia, and Latin America, a foreign policy stance attributable in large part to the Bay of Pigs debacle.<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><script src="//z-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/onejs?MarketPlace=US"></script>Bunga Tijohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00977713810331516757noreply@blogger.com